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Mental Health with Veterans

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Mental Health with Veterans

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Mental Health with Veterans

Introduction

Mental health problems among the veterans pose major policy problems. Every year, tens of thousands of American soldiers leave the military to join their civilian life. However, there is growing global recognition that veterans often face post-conflict dysfunctions that affect their mental and physical wellbeing. For instance, the ongoing conflict in Iraq and Afghanistan has heightened interests in the welfare and health of regular and reserve combatants on their returns from duty and their eventual transition to civilian life (Mitchell et al. 2020). The US literature that explores individuals returning from the 1991 Gulf War suggest that these people who had survived wars and joined the civilian life are more likely to be unemployed or lose their jobs. Such people also end up joining the prison system or rely on alcohol to escape their mental agony. Additionally, some soldiers often leave service prematurely, experience lost working days, and end up socially excluded.

The most commonly mentioned mental health problems that affect veterans include adjustment disorders, alcohol and substance use disorders, depressive symptoms, personality disorders, posttraumatic stress disorder, and drug misuse. In the United States, the experiences of service individuals returning unwell from the Vietnam War have often influenced the traumatology discipline for the past four decades (Iverson & Greenberg, 2009). These incidences resulted in the ultimate incorporation of the term posttraumatic stress disorder into the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Medical Disorders in 1980s (Vance et al., 2020). Despite historians recognizing the Vietnam War as low-intensity one for the US armed forces, the most popular congressionally mandated outcome study, the National Vietnam Veterans Readjustment Study showed that there is a lifetime prevalence of 30.9 percent and an existing 15.2% for PTSD.

Mental health professionals have for a long time reported numerous cases of psychiatric casualties among service personnel. Physicians have, for instance, identified battle hypnosis after military actions among servicemen in 1914. The large battle artilleries filled many health care institutions with many unscathed soldiers who presented with mental disturbances. Thereafter, this number increased phenomenally at a rapid pace. Thus, the concept of shell shock emerged in Europe as a metaphor to describe incurable wounds of war suffered both by populations and countries during and after WWI. British physician Myers first crafted the phrase ‘shell shock’ to provide a medical definition of a specific form of injury that was plaguing the British expeditionary forces (Vance et al., 2020). After associating the concept after what he perceived to be injury’s cause, he explained that the effects of an exploding shell might impair the senses, which include hearing, sight, smell, and taste. Along with other physicians, Myers started to acknowledge the misleading nature of the term. This shift in their view of the disease was driven by the idea that many of such cases occurred among individuals who had never been near shell explosions. As a matter of fact health professionals found that emotional disturbances alone were sufficient to cause the symptoms attributed to shell shock (Jones, 2012). Thus, its perceived symptoms became highly varied to the extent that they could incorporate almost any malady other than physical wound. The diagnosis and assessment of mental health problems among veterans has evolved significantly from the shell shock to modern evidence-based methods of treating them.

Shell Shock and Mental Health Problems among Veterans

Shell shock is a term that emerged to describe the traumatic experiences and symptoms that were observed among soldiers and veterans following World War I. The term was crafted by soldiers themselves and its symptoms took the form of fatigue, confusion, nightmares, and impaired sight and hearing. It was often diagnoses by assessing a service person’s inability to function without an obvious cause to be identified (Jones, 2012). Since many of the symptoms were largely physical, it had minimal overt semblance with the contemporary diagnostic procedures of posttraumatic stress disorder. During the WWI, a group of service men viewed the shell shock as cowardice or a form of malingering but Myers convinced the British military to take it seriously and design appropriate techniques that continue to guide contemporary treatment models. The earliest cases of the disease that Myers evaluated exhibited a wide range of perceptual abnormalities, which included loss or impaired hearing, sight, sensation, alongside other common physical symptoms, including tremor, loss of balance, headache, and fatigue (Stagner, 2014). He inferred that such problems were largely psychological rather than physical casualties, and held the view that these symptoms were overt illustrations of repressed trauma.

Like Myers, William McDougall asserted that shell shock could be treated using psychological interventions such as cognitive and affective reintegration. The shell-shocked military personnel, for instance, attempted to manage their traumatic experiences by repressing or splitting off any memory of a traumatic experience (Stagner, 2014). The symptoms are characterized by tremor or contractures, which are the outcomes of unconscious processes that are designed to maintain the dissociation. These scholars believed that patients might be treated if their memories were assessed and integrated within their consciousness, a procedure that may need many sessions.

In light of the above, Myers, together with a team of physicians began to realize that the term shell shock was misguiding health professionals who were keen on addressing the problem. This is because many cases of the disease had been identified among people who had never been to a shell explosion, In fact, physicians found that emotional disturbances alone were sufficient to cause the symptoms attributed to shell shock and that it became so varied that it could nearly take the form of any malady other than physical wounds. From paralysis to insomnia, blindness to poor appetite and agitation, the shell shock emerged to become the blanket diagnosis and explanation for any number of abnormalities (Stagner, 2014). By 1918, the American Expeditionary Force’s Surgeon General reached a conclusion that the shell shock was no longer a useful diagnosis. As a consequence, the government ordered American doctors to cease using the term since it had become of minimal importance and used as a military slang.

The ambiguity that surrounded the meaning of shell shock went beyond the medical profession to the military world. This is especially the case for American service men that were operating on the West Front and writers, film producers, as well as medical professionals on the American home front. The flexibility that was inherent in the term’s definition enabled it to take a wholly new, and often even contradictory meaning. For instance, one of the special editions of the Journal of Contemporary History on shell shock in 2000 featured Jay Winter, who argued that the disease often seemed to be a quicksilver and shifting character. It thus became part of a language that, as Winter describes, one that reveals the vastness of varying national traditions and perceptions within the overall cultural history of the Great War. Assessing how Americans molded the disorder to fit their cultural environment exposes this vastness, thereby paving the way for the First World War US military culture. The continued discussions about war recovery efforts, and symbolisms regarding the country’s foreign policies at the end of the war and during the interwar era called for more assessment into the causes, diagnosis, and treatment modalities of the disease.

While the country did not enter WWI until 1917, the American press had closely monitored and assessed the global medical discussions regarding shell shock since it final official use in 1915. By the time the United States had ventured into the war, Americans had already designed their own conceptualization of this seemingly new consequence of war. While the British talks often emphasized on the disease’s origins and depicted it as a form of hysteria or malingering, the American depictions focused on validating the shell shock as an injury of war. The country’s psychiatrists, the American Expeditionary Force (AEF), as well as images in popular culture, represented the disease within the progressive, empirical language of healing and recovery. By 1916, empirical, reports from popular American psychiatrists and British soldiers on the front started to alter American media talks relating to the disease. Many scholars, for instance, held that soldiers’ witnessing of horrors of industrial warfare caused shell shock, a form of psychological trauma. By September 1916, a British soldier revealed to American readers how the war caused trench nerves among his colleagues. Thus, American psychiatrists who reported back to the United States from the European front also tabled a study regarding the shell shock within the context of mental trauma. To him, the war caused emotional strain on both the mentally stable and unstable service personnel.

Policymakers in America’s health care sector set the foundation for an expansive medical treatment program to respond to high cases of shell shock. While occasionally discussed, policymakers saw few links between the traumas of civil war and the war taking place in the European continent. Only a few scholarly publications existed on Civil War soldiers with mental and nervous injuries (Stagner, 2014). The official medical and surgical history of the War devoted their efforts merely on a few pages to treatment, and WWI era psychiatrists asserted that the number of service personnel were too small and neuropsychiatry too undeveloped to offer useful guidance for their own tasks. Additionally, American physicians, like their European peers, were inclined to believe that shell shock was not like traumas developed by previous wars. Countless shell bombardments, coupled with the slaughter of machine guns, and unannounced mine explosions resulted in the creation of a stress-intensive environment in which the soldiers’ bravery and skill no longer ensured their survival. These injuries of contemporary warfare needed modern insights into the treatment modalities, which were separate from the experiences of the past.

Soldiers who participated in World War 1 underwent many traumatic experiences, and worked and lived in inhumane conditions. shell shock was common among, European, Asian, and American soldiers alike. For instance, European soldiers underwent fatigue, strain, and hunger (Mcleod, 2019). Although soldiers are trained to be resilient, prolonged periods of starvation coupled with poor working conditions and war are overwhelming even for the most resilient of soldiers (Mcleod, 2019). While the soldiers were working in duress, the expectations on them was high not only from their seniors but also governments that expected them to be victorious regardless of the working conditions or their traumatic experiences (Mcleod, 2019). Therefore, the working conditions and hardships experienced by the soldiers significantly contributed to shell shock. While it was clear that the poor working conditions could cause PTSD, the supervisors and commanders did not believe so. Instead, they thought that the soldiers experiencing shell shock were weak in spirit (Mcleod, 2019). However, this appears not to be the case because the condition it was common among different groups of soldiers in different places.

Rather than merely assessing the past American experiences, the US preparation highly depended upon assessment of soldiers who suffered in the European continent. Observers began assessing psychiatrists, such as Thomas Salmon’s visits to the European Front in early 1917. Their evaluations were to make suggestions to the American military that would aid in the prevention of shell shock from disabling as many troops as it had affected the British. After Salmon’s report, the AEF launched a mental health assessment programs for all recruits. Moreover, the US Army Surgeon General developed a neuropsychiatric division for establishing specific treatment centers for patients’ shock cases in Europe. Its policies on shell shock represented the country’s military’s greater understanding of the injuries. Screening exercises indicated that the development of shell shock might have been strongly linked to hereditary insanity or mental instabilities. These reports implied that the conditions of war merely aroused shell shock in those already predisposed to psychosocial illnesses. However, these decisions to develop the neuropsychiatric division and design treatment facilities recognized that genetics alone could not explain or deter shell shock. More specifically, the AEF observed that after a soldier’s exposure to the problem in the trench warfare, unlike those with hereditary insanity, those with shell shock could be treated.

From Shell Shock to PTSD

Over time the shell shock phrase was replaced with post-combat disorder or post-war disorder, which was used to describe the clusters of medically unexplained symptoms that were observed among servicemen after exposure to warring environments. These presentations were also referred to as ‘war syndromes’ (Young, 2020). However, the term was later viewed as misleading in one respect as the same symptom clusters that were observed in solders that break down during training or service in the United Kingdom and have not yet been exposed to the stress of battle (Pagel, 2021). Additionally, post-combat disorders were not the same as combat stress responses since they are characterized by somatic and neurological symptoms of chronic characteristics.

The concept of post-war disorder would later evolve into the posttraumatic stress disorder. This occurred after researchers examined the subjective responses of sufferers and defined it. To them, a condition is regarded as PTSD after a person’s response to the event involves intensive fear, helplessness, and horror. Moreover, the diagnostic criteria for PTSD requires physicians to assess whether the person has experienced an event that is outside the confines of usual human experience and that would be markedly distressing or almost everyone (Pagel, 2021). These include serious threats to life or physical integrity, serious threats or harm to children, spouses, or other close relatives and friends. Other traumatic experiences may include sudden destruction of home or community or seeing others being seriously injured or killed as a result of an accident or physical violence (Young, 2020). The DSM criteria also suggest that such a traumatic event should be persistently re-experienced in at least one of the following ways. First, there must be recurrent and intrusive distressing recollections of the event, especially among young children, repetitive plays in which themes or elements of the trauma are expressed. When it comes to veterans, patients may experience recurring distressing dreams of the events, as well as sudden acting or feelings that point to traumatic events, which continue to recur after living service. Finally, the soldiers may have frequent hallucinations, illnesses, or dissociative behaviors.

Conclusion

Soldiers who participated in the First World War, in 1914, experienced health abnormalities that they named the shell shock. The major symptoms of the disorder included impaired auditory and optic capacities, anxiety, nightmares, parasomnia, and tremors (Stone, 2018). At the time, physicians were not aware of the causes and what the disorder was. The disorder impacted their mental and emotional wellbeing. However, unlike other known conditions including anxiety, the disorder was manifested physically in that the affected soldiers could not operate with the usual competency (Stone, 2018). Initially, it was thought that the shell shock resulted from a severe concussion that significantly affected the nervous system. In the forces, it was believed that the symptoms resulted from fear. To that effect, it was believed that soldiers who were not courageous enough experienced the illness rather than their more courageous colleagues.

Understanding shell shock was not easy when it was first noticed among the soldiers who participated in World War 1. While the symptoms of Shell Shock including anxiety and tremors were initially detected among soldiers who had directly participated in battle, they were later detected in soldiers who had not been near exploding weapons including bombs (Stone, 2018). At first, the condition suffered by the second group of soldiers was thought to be neurasthenia. Neurasthenia is a condition signified by severe nervous breakdown as a result of participation in war, but was also encompassed by shell shock (Stone, 2018). Before World War 1, similar disorders were observed among German and French soldiers in the 18th Century (Macleod, 2019). The term neurasthenia was used to describe the disorder that was symptomized by low-grade nervousness (Stone, 2018). The greatest symptom of the disorder was believed to be exhaustion because soldiers who suffered from Shell Shock were generally exhausted.

Unlike in the World War 1 where the symptoms of Shell Shock were speculated to be fear of war, there were no suspected cause of the disorder in the 19th Century. However, the main symptoms of the disorder then were singled out to be extreme fatigue, insomnia, nightmares, anorexia related depicted by physical and mental tiredness, and sensory sensitization (Stone, 2018). At the time, Shell Shock was believed to be caused by an undetectable change to the chemical structure of the nervous system. In the US, the disorder was thought to be a disease associated with the modern American lifestyle (Macleod, 2019). In particular, neurasthenia, which was held as a component of Shell Shock, was believed to be perpetrated by the fast-paced lifestyle, increased workload, and emotional repression associated with the modernity paradigm.

The pre-war diagnosis of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) was arguably messy, controversial, and confusing. For instance, it was thought that the illness was connected to other underlying disorders including epilepsy rather than traumatic experiences. Among the soldiers who suffered from PTSD, then known as shell shock, laboratory tests revealed that hysteria caused by psychical abnormality was common (Macleod, 2019). According to the restricted field consciousness theory, the mind assembles information and ideas according to the specific experiences that the body is exposed to (Gyatso, 2020). In this regard, exposure to specific disturbing experiences were likely to elicit responses that were products of extreme changes that corresponded to the nature of the stimuli (Trivedi, et al. 2020). Although shell shock was associated with traumatic experiences by soldiers, it was wrongly diagnosed as fear of war, and feebleness (Stone, 2018). However, in reality, a significant number of brave soldiers suffered from shell shock. Consequently, soldiers’ health significantly deteriorated because they did not receive the right emotional and psychiatric interventions that would improve their emotional and mental wellbeing.

In 1914, a British doctor Albert Wilson, asserted that soldiers who suffered from Shell Shock would not be tended to by psychiatrists. His rationale was that the soldier patients who were crying like children and mentally disturbed would recover after receiving treatment for their physical injuries (Macleod, 2019). Moreover, the doctor argued that their brave colleagues would increase their motivation and give them courage to overcome the spirit of fear that affected their metal wellbeing. However, it became apparent that mental intervention was necessary since the symptoms shown by the soldiers did not change even after being discharged from the hospital (Macleod, 2019). Since even unwounded soldiers experienced severe hysteria, it became apparent that shell shock was caused by their experiences of seeing their colleagues hurt and killed apart from their physical injuries.

References

Gyatso, J. (2020). Apparitions of the Self. Princeton University Press.

Iversen, A. C., & Greenberg, N. (2009). Mental health of regular and reserve military

veterans. Advances in psychiatric treatment, 15(2), 100-106.

Jones, E. (2012). Shell shocked. American Psychological Association, 43(6), 18.

Macleod, A. S. (2019). Shell Shock Doctors: Neuropsychiatry in the Trenches, 1914-18.

Mitchell, L. L., Frazier, P. A., & Sayer, N. A. (2020). Identity disruption and its association with

mental health among veterans with reintegration difficulty. Developmental psychology.

Pagel, J. F. (2021). Shell Shock and Society. In Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (pp. 1-9).

Springer, Cham.

Stagner, A. C. (2014). Healing the soldier, restoring the nation: representations of shell shock in

the USA during and after the First World War. Journal of Contemporary History, 49(2), 255-274.

Stone, M. (2018). Shellshock and the psychologists. In The anatomy of madness (pp. 242-271). Routledge.

Trivedi, R. B., Post, E. P., Piegari, R., Simonetti, J., Boyko, E. J., Asch, S. M., … & Maynard, C. (2020). Mortality among Veterans with major mental illnesses seen in primary care: results of a national study of Veteran deaths. Journal of general internal medicine, 35(1), 112-118. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11606-019-05307-w

Vance, M. C., & Howell, J. D. (2020, September). Shell Shock and PTSD: A Tale of Two

Diagnoses. In Mayo Clinic Proceedings (Vol. 95, No. 9, pp. 1827-1830). Elsevier

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An issue that affects today’s health care system

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Directions: Write a formal 1-2 page in APA format that addresses the following:

1. Select an issue that affects today’s health care system. This can be at a community, state, or national level. Please write a paragraph about the issue and its impact on you as a nurse and/or the nursing profession.

2. Choose at least 4 sources that view the issue from each of the opposing sides (minimum of 4 sources total).

3. Write a 1-2 paragraph(s) that compare and contrast the pros and cons of policy change regarding your identified health care issue. Use the references from step #2 to support your statements.

4. Write a paragraph explaining which side you choose to support and how you believe that will impact health care at a local or national level.

5. List the steps you would take to advocate for policy change. This must include a person and/or group at the community, state or federal level that could assist in advocacy. This should serve as a roadmap to help your cause

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peer-reviewed scholarly journal article discussing electronic innovation and the government

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Find a peer-reviewed scholarly journal article discussing electronic innovation and the government. Complete a review of the article by writing a 2-3 page overview of the article. This will be a detailed summary of the journal article, including concepts discussed and findings. Additionally, find one other source (it does not have to be a peer-reviewed journal article) that substantiates the findings in the article you are reviewing.
Once you find the article, you will read it and write a review of it. This is considered a research article review.
Your paper should meet these requirements:

Be approximately three to four pages in length, not including the required cover page and reference page.
Follow APA 7 guidelines. Your paper should include an introduction, a body with fully developed content, and a conclusion

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Malcolm X (1925 – 1965) the Ballot or the Bullet

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Malcolm X

Malcolm X (1925 – 1965)

“The Ballot or the Bullet”

King Solomon Baptist Church, Detroit, Michigan – April 12, 1964

Malcolm X was one of the most dynamic, dramatic and influential figures of the civil rights era. He was an apostle of black nationalism, self respect, and uncompromising resistance to white oppression. Malcolm X was a polarizing figure who both energized and divided African Americans, while frightening and alienating many whites. He was an unrelenting truth-teller who declared that the mainstream civil rights movement was naïve in hoping to secure freedom through integration and nonviolence. The blazing heat of Malcolm X’s rhetoric sometimes overshadowed the complexity of his message, especially for those who found him threatening in the first place. Malcolm X was assassinated at age 39, but his political and cultural influence grew far greater in the years after his death than when he was alive.

Malcolm X is now popularly seen as one of the two great martyrs of the 20th century black freedom struggle, the other being his ostensible rival, the Rev. Martin Luther King Jr. But in the spring of 1964, when Malcolm X gave his “Ballot or the Bullet” speech, he was regarded by a majority of white Americans as a menacing character. Malcolm X never directly called for violent revolution, but he warned that African Americans would use “any means necessary” – especially armed self defense – once they realized just how pervasive and

hopelessly entrenched white racism had become.1

He was born Malcolm Little in 1925 in Omaha, Nebraska. His father, Earl, was a Baptist preacher and follower of the black nationalist Marcus Garvey. Earl Little’s political activism provoked threats from the Ku Klux Klan. After the family moved to Lansing, Michigan, white terrorists burned the Littles’ home. A defiant Earl Little shot at the arsonists as they got away. In 1931, Malcolm’s father was found dead. His family suspected he’d been murdered by white vigilantes. Malcolm’s mother, Louise, battled mental illness and struggled to care for her eight children during the Great Depression. She was committed to a state mental institution when Malcolm was 12. He and the other young children were scattered among foster families. After completing the eighth grade, Malcolm Little dropped out when a teacher told him that his dream of

becoming a lawyer was unrealistic for a “nigger.”2

As a teenager, Malcolm Little made his way to New York, where he took the street name Detroit Red and became a pimp and petty criminal. In 1946, Malcolm Little was sent to prison for burglary. He read voraciously while serving time and converted to the Black Muslim faith. He joined the Nation of Islam (NOI) and changed his name to Malcolm X, eliminating that part of his identity he called a white-imposed slave name.

Malcom X was released in 1952 after six years in prison. With his charisma and eloquence, Malcolm rose rapidly in the Nation of Islam. He became the chief spokesman and field recruiter for NOI leader Elijah Muhammad. As historian Peniel Joseph describes it, NOI’s unorthodox interpretation of Islam was mixed with a doctrine of black personal responsibility and economic self- sufficiency, along with “theological fundamentalism, anti-white mythology, and total racial separation as the means to black

redemption.”3 Wearing impeccable suits, maintaining an air of fierce dignity and adhering to a strict code of moral propriety, Malcolm X was a living demonstration of how the NOI could save a wayward people from racial submission and personal self- destruction. The Nation dismissed the conventional civil rights movement – with its protest marches and demands for equal rights legislation — as impotent and misguided. As Malcolm X declared in this speech, the only effective solution to racial inequality was black economic and social separatism.

As Malcolm X’s national prominence grew, so did a rift between him and Elijah Muhammad. Malcolm X far overshadowed his mentor in the public sphere. He also grew disillusioned by Elijah Muhammad’s scandalous personal behavior; the Messenger

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fathered several children through affairs with his secretaries. The conflict deepened when Muhammad suspended Malcolm X for saying that President John F. Kennedy’s assassination represented “the chickens coming home to roost” because of the war in

Vietnam.4 Finally, in March 1964, Malcolm X left the Nation of Islam and charted his own course of militant, black nationalism.

On April 12, 1964, one month after splitting with the NOI, Malcolm X gave his “Ballot or the Bullet” speech at King Solomon Baptist Church in Detroit (he’d given the address nine days earlier in Cleveland, but the Detroit version is regarded by some scholars as

definitive).5 It was the fullest declaration of his black nationalist philosophy. Mainstream black ministers in Detroit tried to block Malcolm X from using the church, saying “separatist ideas can do nothing but set back the colored man’s cause.” But the church

hall had already been rented out for the event.6

“The Ballot or the Bullet” became one of Malcolm X’s most recognizable phrases, and the speech was one of his greatest orations. Two thousand people – including some of his opponents — turned out to hear him speak in Detroit.. President Lyndon Johnson was running for reelection in 1964, and Malcolm X declared it “the year of the ballot or the bullet.” He outlined a new, global sensibility in the fight for racial justice: “We intend to expand [the freedom struggle] from the level of civil rights to the level of human rights.”

Malcolm was now free of the NOI’s ban on members participating in the mainstream civil rights movement. He encouraged black militants to get involved in voter registration drives and other forms of community organizing to redefine and expand the

movement.7

The day after his Detroit speech, Malcolm X embarked on an overseas tour that included a life-changing pilgrimage to the Muslim holy city of Mecca. Known as the Hajj, the pilgrimage must be carried out at least once in a lifetime by every able-bodied Muslim who can afford to do so. The racial diversity he experienced in the Middle East, especially among Muslims, led him to discard his strict notions of black separatism for a wider, more inclusive movement against white supremacy and colonialism. In the summer of 1964, Malcolm X announced a new effort, the Organization of Afro-American Unity (OAAU).

In the last months of his life, Malcolm X’s conflict with the Nation of Islam grew increasingly bitter. Elijah Muhammad and the NOI had a long history of using violence and intimidation against members who strayed. In February, 1965, Malcolm X’s home was firebombed. He publicly blamed the Nation of Islam and predicted he would be killed. Malcolm X was shot to death on February 12, 1965 as he prepared to speak at an OAAU rally at the Audubon Ballroom in New York. Three black men, all members of the NOI, were convicted and sent to prison for the murder.

In an editorial after his death, The New York Times described Malcolm X as “an extraordinary and twisted man, turning many true

gifts to evil purpose.”8 Actor and activist Ossie Davis eulogized him as “our own black shining prince.”9 In death, he became a seminal figure to an increasingly militant generation of young African Americans, a beacon for activists in the 1960s Black Power and Black Arts movements.

In assessing Malcolm X’s impact, theologian James Cone wrote: “More than anyone else he revolutionized the black mind,

transforming docile Negroes and self-effacing colored people into proud blacks and self-confident African-Americans.”10 By the end of the 20th century, Malcolm X was recognized in mainstream culture as a hero of the civil rights era. The militant radical whose image once provoked fear and hatred among many white Americans was celebrated in mainstream movie theaters, on Black History Month posters in elementary school classrooms, and on a 1999 postage stamp issued by the United States government.

This documentary and more than a hundred others are available on demand. Subscribe at Apple Podcasts.

Mr. Moderator, Rev. Cleage, brothers and sisters and friends, and I see some enemies. [laughter, applause] In fact, I think we’d be fooling ourselves if we had an audience this large and didn’t realize that there were some enemies present.

This afternoon we want to talk about the ballot or the bullet. The ballot or the bullet explains itself. But before we get into it, since this is the year of the ballot or the bullet, I would like to clarify some things that refer to me personally, concerning my own personal position.

I’m still a Muslim. That is, my religion is still Islam. [applause] My religion is still Islam. I still credit Mr. Muhammad for what I know and what I am. He’s the one who opened my eyes. [applause] At present I am the minister of the newly founded Muslim Mosque Incorporated, which has its offices in the Theresa Hotel right in the heart of Harlem, that’s the black belt in New York City. And when we realize that Adam Clayton Powell, is a Christian minister, he has Abyssinian Baptist Church, but at the same time he’s more famous for his political struggling. And Dr. King is a Christian minister from Atlanta Georgia, or in Atlanta Georgia, but he’s become more famous for being involved in the civil rights struggle. There’s another in New York, Rev. Galamison, I

0:000:00 / 5:06/ 5:06https://www.apmreports.org/documentaries https://itunes.apple.com/us/podcast/id1131751310

don’t know if you’ve heard of him out here, he’s a Christian minister from Brooklyn, but has become famous for his fight against the segregated school system in Brooklyn. Rev. Cleage, right here, is a Christian minister, here in Detroit, he’s head of the Freedom Now Party. All of these are Christian ministers [applause] …all of these are Christian ministers but they don’t come to us as Christian ministers, they come to us as fighters in some other category.

I am a Muslim minister. The same as they are Christian ministers, I’m a Muslim minister. And I don’t believe in fighting today on any one front, but on all fronts. [applause] In fact, I’m a Black Nationalist freedom fighter. [applause] Islam is my religion but I believe my religion is my personal business. [applause] It governs my personal life, my personal morals. And my religious philosophy is personal between me and the God in whom I believe, just as the religious philosophy of these others is between them and the God in whom they believe. And this is best this way. Were we to come out here discussing religion, we’d have too many differences from the out start and we could never get together.

So today, though Islam is my religious philosophy, my political, economic and social philosophy is black nationalism. You and I – [applause] As I say, if we bring up religion, we’ll have differences, we’ll have arguments, and we’ll never be able to get together. But if we keep our religion at home, keep our religion in the closet, keep our religion between ourselves and our God, but when we come out here we have a fight that’s common to all of us against a enemy who is common to all of us. [applause]

The political philosophy of black nationalism only means that the black man should control the politics and the politicians in his own community. The time when white people can come in our community and get us to vote for them so that they can be our political leaders and tell us what to do and what not to do is long gone. [applause]

By the same token, the time when that same white man, knowing that your eyes are too far open, can send another Negro in the community, and get you and me to support him, so that he can use him to lead us astray, those days are long gone too. [applause]

The political philosophy of black nationalism only means that if you and I are going to live in a black community – and that’s where we’re going to live, ’cause as soon as you move into one of their….soon as you move out of the black community into their community, it’s mixed for a period of time, but they’re gone and you’re right there all by yourself again. [applause]

We must, we must understand the politics of our community and we must know what politics is supposed to produce. We must know what part politics play in our lives. And until we become politically mature, we will always be misled, led astray, or deceived or maneuvered into supporting someone politically who doesn’t have the good of our community at heart. So the political philosophy of black nationalism only means that we will have to carry on a program, a political program, of reeducation – to open our people’s eyes, make us become more politically conscious, politically mature. And then, we will – whenever we are ready to cast our ballot, that ballot will be cast for a man of the community, who has the good of the community at heart. [applause]

The economic philosophy of black nationalism only means that we should own and operate and control the economy of our community. You would never have found—you can’t open up a black store in a white community. White man won’t even patronize you. And he’s not wrong. He got sense enough to look out for himself. It’s you who don’t have sense enough to look out for yourself. [applause]

The white man, the white man is too intelligent to let someone else come and gain control of the economy of his community. But you will let anybody come in and control the economy of your community, control the housing, control the education, control the jobs, control the businesses, under the pretext that you want to integrate. Nah, you’re out of your mind. [applause]

The political … the economic philosophy of black nationalism only means that we have to become involved in a program of reeducation, to educate our people into the importance of knowing that when you spend your dollar out of the community in which you live, the community in which you spend your money becomes richer and richer, the community out of which you take your money becomes poorer and poorer. And because these Negroes, who have been misled, misguided, are breaking their necks to take their money and spend it with the Man, the Man is becoming richer and richer, and you’re becoming poorer and poorer. And then what happens? The community in which you live becomes a slum. It becomes a ghetto. The conditions become rundown. And then you have the audacity to complain about poor housing in a rundown community, while you’re running down yourselves when you take your dollar out.

[applause]

And you and I are in a double trap because not only do we lose by taking our money someplace else and spending it, when we try and spend it in our own community we’re trapped because we haven’t had sense enough to set up stores and control the businesses of our community. The man who is controlling the stores in our community is a man who doesn’t look like we do. He’s a man who doesn’t even live in the community. So you and I, even when we try and spend our money on the block where we live or the area where we live, we’re spending it with a man who, when the sun goes down, takes that basket full of money in another part of the town. [applause]

So we’re trapped, trapped, double-trapped, triple-trapped. Any way we go, we find that we’re trapped. Any every kind of solution that someone comes up with is just another trap. But the political and economic philosophy of black nationalism…the economic philosophy of black nationalism shows our people the importance of setting up these little stores, and developing them and expanding them into larger operations. Woolworth didn’t start out big like they are today; they started out with a dime store, and expanded, and expanded, and expanded until today they are all over the country and all over the world and they getting some of everybody’s money.

Now this is what you and I – General Motors, the same way, it didn’t start out like it is. It started out just a little rat-race type operation. And it expanded and it expanded until today it’s where it is right now. And you and I have to make a start. And the best place to start is right in the community where we live. [applause]

So our people not only have to be reeducated to the importance of supporting black business, but the black man himself has to be made aware of the importance of going into business. And once you and I go into business, we own and operate at least the businesses in our community. What we will be doing is developing a situation, wherein, we will actually be able to create employment for the people in the community. And once you can create some employment in the community where you live, it will eliminate the necessity of you and me having to act ignorantly and disgracefully, boycotting and picketing some cracker someplace else trying to beg him for a job.

[applause]

Anytime you have to rely upon your enemy for a job, you’re in bad shape. [applause] When you — and he is your enemy. You wouldn’t be in this country if some enemy hadn’t kidnapped you and brought you here. [applause] On the other hand, some of you think you came here on the Mayflower. [laughter]

So as you can see, brothers and sisters, today – this afternoon it is not our intention to discuss religion. We’re going to forget religion. If we bring up religion we’ll be in an argument. And the best way to keep away from arguments and differences, as I said earlier, put your religion at home, in the closet, keep it between you and your God. Because if it hasn’t done anything more for you than it has, you need to forget it anyway. [laughter, applause]

Whether you are a Christian or a Muslim or a nationalist, we all have the same problem. They don’t hang you because you’re a Baptist; they hang you ’cause you’re

black. [applause] They don’t attack me because I’m a Muslim. They attack me ’cause I’m black. They attacked all of us for the same reason. All of us catch hell from the same enemy. We’re all in the same bag, in the same boat.

We suffer political oppression, economic exploitation and social degradation. All of ’em from the same enemy. The government has failed us. You can’t deny that. Any time you’re living in the 20th century, 1964, and you walking around here singing “We Shall Overcome,” the government has failed you. [applause] This is part of what’s wrong with you, you do too much singing. [laughter] Today it’s time to stop singing and start swinging. [laughter, applause]

You can’t sing up on freedom. But you can swing up on some freedom. [cheering] Cassius Clay can sing. But singing didn’t help him to become the heavyweight champion of the world. Swinging helped him. [applause]

So this government has failed us. The government itself has failed us. And the white liberals who have been posing as our friends have failed us. And once we see that all of these other sources to which we’ve turned have failed, we stop turning to them and turn to ourselves. We need a self-help program, a do-it-yourself philosophy, a do-it- right-now philosophy, a it’s-already-too-late philosophy. This is what you and I need to get with. And the only time – the only way we’re going to solve our problem is with a self-help program. Before we can get a self-help program started, we have to have a self-help philosophy. Black nationalism is a self-help philosophy.

What’s so good about it – you can stay right in the church where you are and still take black nationalism as your philosophy. You can stay in any kind of civic organization that you belong to and still take black nationalism as your philosophy. You can be an atheist and still take black nationalism as your philosophy. This is a philosophy that eliminates the necessity for division and argument, ’cause if you’re black, you should be thinking black. And if you’re black and you not thinking black at this late date, well, I’m sorry for you. [applause]

Once you change your philosophy, you change your thought pattern. Once you change your thought pattern you change your attitude. Once you change your attitude it changes your behavior pattern. And then you go on into some action. As long as you got a sit-down philosophy you’ll have a sit-down thought pattern. And as long as you think that old sit-down thought, you’ll be in some kind of sit-down action. They’ll have you sitting in everywhere. [laughter]

It’s not so good to refer to what you’re going to do as a sit-in. That right there castrates you. Right there it brings you down. What goes with it? What – think of the image of someone sitting. An old woman can sit. An old man can sit. A chump can sit, a coward can sit, anything can sit. Well, you and I been sitting long enough and it’s time for us today to start doing some standing and some fighting to back that up. [applause]

When we look at other parts of this Earth upon which we live, we find that black, brown, red and yellow people in Africa and Asia are getting their independence. They’re not getting it by singing, ‘We Shall Overcome.” No, they’re getting it through nationalism. It is nationalism that brought about the independence of the people in Asia. Every nation in Asia gained its independence through the philosophy of nationalism. Every nation on the African continent that has gotten its independence brought it about through the philosophy of nationalism. And it will take black nationalism to bring about the freedom of 22 million Afro-Americans, here in this country, where we have suffered colonialism for the past 400 years. [applause]

America is just as much a colonial power as England ever was. America is just as much a colonial power as France ever was. In fact, America is more so a colonial power than they, because she is a hypocritical colonial power behind it. [applause] What is 20th — what, what do you call second-class citizenship? Why, that’s colonization. Second-class citizenship is nothing but 20th slavery. How you gonna to tell me you’re a second-class

citizen? They don’t have second-class citizenship in any other government on this Earth. They just have slaves and people who are free! Well, this country is a hypocrite! They try and make you think they set you free by calling you a second-class citizen. No, you’re nothing but a 20th century slave. [applause]

Just as it took nationalism to remove colonialism from Asia and Africa, it’ll take black nationalism today to remove colonialism from the backs and the minds of twenty-two million Afro-Americans here in this country. And 1964 looks like it might be the year of the ballot or the bullet. [applause]

Why does it look like it might be the year of the ballot or the bullet? Because Negroes have listened to the trickery and the lies and the false promises of the white man now for too long, and they’re fed up. They’ve become disenchanted. They’ve become disillusioned. They’ve become dissatisfied. And all of this has built up frustrations in the black community that makes the black community throughout America today more explosive than all of the atomic bombs the Russians can ever invent. Whenever you got a racial powder keg sitting in your lap, you’re in more trouble than if you had an atomic powder keg sitting in your lap. When a racial powder keg goes off, it doesn’t care who it knocks out the way. Understand this, it’s dangerous.

And in 1964, this seems to be the year. Because what can the white man use, now, to fool us? After he put down that March on Washington – and you see all through that now, he tricked you, had you marching down to Washington. Had you marching back and forth between the feet of a dead man named Lincoln and another dead man named George Washington, singing, “We Shall Overcome.” [applause]

He made a chump out of you. He made a fool out of you. He made you think you were going somewhere and you end up going nowhere but between Lincoln and Washington. [laughter]

So today our people are disillusioned. They’ve become disenchanted. They’ve become dissatisfied. And in their frustrations they want action. And in 1964 you’ll see this young black man, this new generation, asking for the ballot or the bullet. That old Uncle Tom action is outdated. The young generation don’t want to hear anything about “the odds are against us.” What do we care about odds? [applause]

When this country here was first being founded, there were thirteen colonies. The whites were colonized. They were fed up with this taxation without representation. So some of them stood up and said, “Liberty or death!” I went to a white school over here in Mason, Michigan. The white man made the mistake of letting me read his history books. [laughter] He made the mistake of teaching me that Patrick Henry was a patriot, and George Washington – wasn’t nothing non-violent about ol’ Pat, or George Washington. “Liberty or death” is was what brought about the freedom of whites in this country from the English. [applause]

They didn’t care about the odds. Why, they faced the wrath of the entire British Empire. And in those days, they used to say that the British Empire was so vast and so powerful that the sun would never set on it. This is how big it was, yet these thirteen little scrawny states, tired of taxation without representation, tired of being exploited and oppressed and degraded, told that big British Empire, “Liberty or death.” And here you have 22 million Afro-Americans, black people today, catching more hell than Patrick Henry ever saw. [applause]

And I’m here to tell you in case you don’t know it – that you got a new, you got a new generation of black people in this country who don’t care anything whatsoever about odds. They don’t want to hear you ol’ Uncle Tom, handkerchief-heads talking about the odds. No! [laughter, applause] This is a new generation. If they’re going to draft these young black men, and send them over to Korea or to South Vietnam to face 800 million Chinese… [laughter, applause] If you’re not afraid of those odds, you shouldn’t be afraid of these odds. [applause]

Why is America – why does this loom to be such an explosive political year? Because this is the year of politics. This is the year when all of the white politicians are going to come into the Negro community. You never see them until election time. You can’t find them until election time. [applause] They’re going to come in with false promises. And as they make these false promises they’re going to feed our frustrations, and this will only serve to make matters worse. I’m no politician. I’m not even a student of politics. I’m not a Republican, nor a Democrat, nor an American – and got sense enough to know it. [applause]

I’m one of the 22 million black victims of the Democrats. One of the 22 million black victims of the Republicans and one of the 22 million black victims of Americanism. [applause] And when I speak, I don’t speak as a Democrat or a Republican, nor an American. I speak as a victim of America’s so-called democracy. You and I have never seen democracy – all we’ve seen is hypocrisy. [applause]

When we open our eyes today and look around America, we see America not through the eyes of someone who has enjoyed the fruits of Americanism. We see America through the eyes of someone who has been the victim of Americanism. We don’t see any American dream. We’ve experienced only the American nightmare. We haven’t benefited from America’s democracy. We’ve only suffered from America’s hypocrisy. And the generation that’s coming up now can see it. And are not afraid to say it. If you go to jail, so what? If you’re black, you were born in jail. [applause]

If you black you were born in jail, in the North as well as the South. Stop talking about the South. As long as you south of the Canadian border, you South. [laughter, applause] Don’t call Governor Wallace a Dixie governor, Romney is a Dixie Governor.

[applause]

Twenty-two million black victims of Americanism are waking up and they are gaining a new political consciousness, becoming politically mature. And as they become – develop this political maturity, they’re able to see the recent trends in these political elections. They see that the whites are so evenly divided that every time they vote, the race is so close they have to go back and count the votes all over again. Which means that any block, any minority that has a block of votes that stick together is in a strategic position. Either way you go, that’s who gets it. You’re in a position to determine who’ll go to the White House and who’ll stay in the doghouse. [laughter]

You’re the one who has that power. You can keep Johnson in Washington D.C., or you can send him back to his Texas cotton patch. [applause] You’re the one who sent Kennedy to Washington. You’re the one who put the present Democratic administration in Washington, D.C. The whites were evenly divided. It was the fact that you threw 80 percent of your votes behind the Democrats that put the Democrats in the White House.

When you see this, you can see that the Negro vote is the key factor. And despite the fact that you are in a position to be the determining factor, what do you get out of it? The Democrats have been in Washington, D.C. only because of the Negro vote. They’ve been down there four years. And they’re – all other legislation they wanted to bring up they’ve brought it up, and gotten it out of the way, and now they bring up you. And now they bring up you! You put them first and they put you last. Because you’re a chump! [applause] A political chump.

In Washington, D.C., in the House of Representatives there are 257 who are Democrats. Only 177 are Republican. In the Senate there are 67 Democrats. Only 33 are Republicans. The party that you backed controls two-thirds of the House of Representatives and the Senate and still they can’t keep their promise to you. ‘Cause you’re a chump. [applause]

Any time you throw your weight behind a political party that controls two-thirds of the government, and that party can’t keep the promise that it made to you during election-

time, and you’re dumb enough to walk around continuing to identify yourself with that party, you’re not only a chump but you’re a traitor to your race. [applause]

What kind of alibi do come up with? They try and pass the buck to the Dixiecrats. Now, back during the days when you were blind, deaf and dumb, ignorant, politically immature, naturally you went along with that. But today, as your eyes come open, and you develop political maturity, you’re able to see and think for yourself, and you can see that a Dixiecrat is nothing but a Democrat – in disguise. [applause]

You look at the structure of the government that controls this country, is controlled by 16 senatorial committees and 20 congressional committees. Of the 16 senatorial committees that run the government, 10 of them are in the hands of southern segregationists. Of the 20 congressional committees that run the government, 12 of them are in the hands of southern segregationists. And they’re going to tell you and me that the South lost the war? [laughter, applause]

You, today, are in the hands of a government of segregationists. Racists, white supremacists, who belong to the Democratic party but disguise themselves as Dixiecrats. A Dixiecrat is nothing but a Democrat. Whoever runs the Democrats is also the father of the Dixiecrats. And the father of all of them is sitting in the White House. [applause] I say, and I’ll say it again, you got a president who’s nothing but a southern segregationist [applause] from the state of Texas. They’ll lynch in Texas as quick as they’ll lynch you in Mississippi. Only in Texas they lynch you with a Texas accent, in Mississippi they lynch you with a Mississippi accent. [cheering]

The first thing the cracker does when he comes in power, he takes all the Negro leaders and invites them for coffee. To show that he’s all right. And those Uncle Toms can’t pass up the coffee. [laughter, applause] They come away from the coffee table telling you and me that this man is all right [laughter]. ‘Cause he’s from the South and since he’s from the South he can deal with the South. Look at the logic that they’re using. What about Eastland? He’s from the South. Why not make him the president? If Johnson is a good man ’cause he’s from Texas, and being from Texas will enable him to deal with the South, Eastland can deal with the South better than Johnson! [laughter, applause]

Oh, I say you been misled. You been had. You been took. [laughter, applause] I was in Washington a couple of weeks ago while the senators were filibustering and I noticed in the back of the Senate a huge map, and on this map it showed the distribution of Negroes in America. And surprisingly, the same senators that were involved in the filibuster were from the states where there were the most Negroes. Why were they filibustering the civil rights legislation? Because the civil rights legislation is supposed to guarantee boarding rights to Negroes from those states. And those senators from those states know that if the Negroes in those states can vote, those senators are down the drain. [applause] The representatives of those states go down the drain.

And in the Constitution of this country it has a stipulation, wherein, whenever the rights, the voting rights of people in a certain district are violated, then the representative who’s from that particular district, according to the Constitution, is supposed to be expelled from the Congress. Now, if this particular aspect of the Constitution was enforced, why, you wouldn’t have a cracker in Washington, D.C.

[applause]

But what would happen? When you expel the Dixiecrat, you’re expelling the Democrat. When you destroy the power of the Dixiecrat, you are destroying the power of the Democratic Party. So how in the world can the Democratic Party in the South actually side with you, in sincerity, when all of its power is based in the South?

These Northern Democrats are in cahoots with the southern Democrats. [applause] They’re playing a giant con game, a political con game. You know how it goes. One of ’em comes to you and make believe he’s for you. And he’s in cahoots with the other one

that’s not for you. Why? Because neither one of ’em is for you. But they got to make you go with one of ’em or the other.

So this is a con game, and this is what they’ve been doing with you and me all of these years. First thing, Johnson got off the plane when he become president, he ask, “Where’s Dickey?” You know who Dickey is? Dickey is old southern cracker Richard Russell. Lookie here! Yes, Lyndon B. Johnson’s best friend is the one who is a head, who’s heading the forces that are filibustering civil rights legislation. You tell me how in the hell is he going to be Johnson’s best friend? [applause] How can Johnson be his friend and your friend too? No, that man is too tricky. Especially if his friend is still ol’ Dickey. [laughter, applause]

Whenever the Negroes keep the Democrats in power they’re keeping the Dixiecrats in power. This is true! A vote for a Democrat is nothing but a vote for a Dixiecrat. I know you don’t like me saying that. I’m not the kind of person who come here to say what you like. I’m going to tell you the truth whether you like it or not. [applause]

Up here in the North you have the same thing. The Democratic Party don’t – they don’t do it that way. They got a thing they call gerrymandering. They maneuver you out of power. Even though you can vote they fix it so you’re voting for nobody. They got you going and coming. In the South they’re outright political wolves, in the North they’re political foxes. A fox and a wolf are both canine, both belong to the dog family. [laughter, applause] Now, you take your choice. You going to choose a northern dog or a southern dog? Because either dog you choose, I guarantee you, you’ll still be in the doghouse.

This is why I say it’s the ballot or the bullet. It’s liberty or it’s death. It’s freedom for everybody or freedom for nobody. [applause] America today finds herself in a unique situation. Historically, revolutions are bloody, oh yes they are. They have never had a bloodless revolution. Or a non-violent revolution. That don’t happen even in Hollywood [laughter] You don’t have a revolution in which you love your enemy. And you don’t have a revolution in which you are begging the system of exploitation to integrate you into it. Revolutions overturn systems. Revolutions destroy systems.

A revolution is bloody, but America is in a unique position. She’s the only country in history, in the position actually to become involved in a bloodless revolution. The Russian Revolution was bloody, Chinese Revolution was bloody, French Revolution was bloody, Cuban Revolution was bloody. And there was nothing more bloody than the American Revolution. But today, this country can become involved in a revolution that won’t take bloodshed. All she’s got to do is give the black man in this country everything that’s due him, everything. [applause]

I hope that the white man can see this. ‘Cause if you don’t see it you’re finished. If you don’t see it you’re going to become involved in some action in which you don’t have a chance. We don’t care anything about your atomic bomb; it’s useless, because other countries have atomic bombs. When two or three different countries have atomic bombs, nobody can use them. So it means that the white man today is without a weapon. If you want some action you’ve got to come on down to Earth, and there’s more black people on Earth than there are white people. [applause]

I only got a couple more minutes. The white man can never win another war on the ground. His days of war – victory – his days of battleground victory are over. Can I prove it? Yes. Take all the action that’s going on this Earth right now that he’s involved in. Tell me where he’s winning – nowhere. Why, some rice farmers, some rice farmers! Some rice-eaters ran him out of Korea, yes they ran him out of Korea. Rice-eaters, with nothing but gym shoes and a rifle and a bowl of rice, took him and his tanks and his napalm and all that other action he’s supposed to have and ran him across the Yalu. Why? Because the day that he can win on the ground has passed.

Up in French Indochina, those little peasants, rice-growers, took on the might of the French army and ran all the Frenchmen, you remember Dien Bien Phu! The same thing happened in Algeria, in Africa. They didn’t have anything but a rifle. The French had all these highly mechanized instruments of warfare. But they put some guerilla action on. And a white man can’t fight a guerilla warfare. Guerilla action takes heart, take nerve, and he doesn’t have that. [cheering] He’s brave when he’s got tanks. He’s brave when he’s got planes. He’s brave when he’s got bombs. He’s brave when he’s got a whole lot of company along with him. But you take that little man from Africa and Asia; turn him loose in the woods with a blade. A blade. [cheering] That’s all he needs. All he needs is a blade. And when the sun comes down – goes down and it’s dark, it’s even- Stephen. [cheering]

So it’s the, it’s the ballot or the bullet. Today, our people can see that we’re faced with a government conspiracy. This government has failed us. The senators who are filibustering concerning your and my rights, that’s the government. Don’t say it’s southern senators, this is the government. This is a government filibuster. It’s not a segregationist filibuster, it’s a government filibuster. Any kind of activity that takes place on the floor of the Congress or the Senate, that’s the government. Any kind of dilly-dallying, that’s the government. Any kind of pussy-footing, that’s the government. Any kind of act that’s designed to delay or deprive you and me, right now, of getting full rights, that’s the government that’s responsible. And anytime you find the government involved in a conspiracy to violate the citizenship or the civil rights of a people in 1964, then you are wasting your time going to that government expecting redress. Instead you have to take that government to the world court and accuse it of genocide and all of the other crimes that it is guilty of today. [applause]

So those of us whose political and economic and social philosophy is black nationalism have become involved in the civil rights struggle. We have injected ourselves into the civil rights struggle. And we intend to expand it from the level of civil rights to the level of human rights. As long as you fight it on the level of civil rights, you’re under Uncle Sam’s jurisdiction. You’re going to his court expecting him to correct the problem. He created the problem. He’s the criminal! You don’t take your case to the criminal, you take your criminal to court. [applause]

When the government of South Africa began to trample upon the human rights of the people of South Africa they were taken to the U.N. When the government of Portugal began to trample upon the rights of our brothers and sisters in Angola, it was taken before the U.N. Why, even the white man took the Hungarian question to the U.N. And just this week, Chief Justice Goldberg was crying over three million Jews in Russia, about their human rights – charging Russia with violating the U.N. Charter because of its mistreatment of the human rights of Jews in Russia. Now you tell me how can the plight of everybody on this Earth reach the halls of the United Nations and you have twenty-two million Afro-Americans whose churches are being bombed, whose little girls are being murdered, whose leaders are being shot down in broad daylight? Now you tell me why the leaders of this struggle have never taken [recording impaired ]

[their case to the U.N.?]

So our next move is to take the entire civil rights struggle – problem – into the United Nations and let the world see that Uncle Sam is guilty of violating the human rights of 22 million Afro-Americans right down to the year of 1964 and still has the audacity or the nerve to stand up and represent himself as the leader of the free world? [cheering] Not only is he a crook, he’s a hypocrite. Here he is standing up in front of other people, Uncle Sam, with the blood of your and mine mothers and fathers on his hands. With the blood dripping down his jaws like a bloody-jawed wolf. And still got the nerve to point his finger at other countries. In 1964 you can’t even get civil rights legislation and this man has got the nerve to stand up and talk about South Africa or talk about Nazi Germany or talk about Portugal. No, no more days like those! [applause]

So I say in my conclusion, the only way we’re going to solve it: we got to unite. We got to work together in unity and harmony. And black nationalism is the key. How we

gonna overcome the tendency to be at each other’s throats that always exists in our neighborhood? And the reason this tendency exists – the strategy of the white man has always been divide and conquer. He keeps us divided in order to conquer us. He tells you, I’m for separation and you for integration, and keep us fighting with each other. No, I’m not for separation and you’re not for integration, what you and I are for is freedom. [applause] Only, you think that integration will get you freedom; I think that separation will get me freedom. We both got the same objective, we just got different ways of getting’ at it. [applause]

So I studied this man, Billy Graham, who preaches white nationalism. That’s what he preaches. [applause] I say, that’s what he preaches. The whole church structure in this country is white nationalism, you go inside a white church – that’s what they preaching, white nationalism. They got Jesus white, Mary white, God white, everybody white – that’s white nationalism. [cheering]

So what he does – the way he circumvents the jealousy and envy that he ordinarily would incur among the heads of the church – whenever you go into an area where the church already is, you going to run into trouble. Because they got that thing, what you call it, syndicated … they got a syndicate just like the racketeers have. I’m going to say what’s on my mind because the preachers already proved to you that they got a syndicate. [applause] And when you’re out in the rackets, whenever you’re getting in another man’s territory, you know, they gang up on you. And that’s the same way with you. You run into the same thing. So how Billy Graham gets around that, instead of going into somebody else’s territory, like he going to start a new church, he doesn’t try and start a church, he just goes in preaching Christ. And he says anybody who believe in him, you go wherever you find him.

So, this helps all the churches, and since it helps all the churches, they don’t fight him. Well, we going to do the same thing, only our gospel is black nationalism. His gospel is white nationalism, our gospel is black nationalism. And the gospel of black nationalism, as I told you, means you should control your own, the politics of your community, the economy of your community, and all of the society in which you live should be under your control. And once you…feel that this philosophy will solve your problem, go join any church where that’s preached. Don’t join any church where white nationalism is preached. Why, you can go to a Negro church and be exposed to white nationalism. ‘Cause when you are on – when you walk in a Negro church and see a white Jesus and a white Mary and some white angels, that Negro church is preaching white nationalism. [applause]

But, when you go to a church and you see the pastor of that church with a philosophy and a program that’s designed to bring black people together and elevate black people, join that church. Join that church. If you see where the NAACP is preaching and practicing that which is designed to make black nationalism materialize, join the NAACP. Join any kind of organization – civic, religious, fraternal, political or otherwise that’s based on lifting the black man up and making him master of his own community.

[applause]

1. Malcolm X, By Any Means Necessary: Malcolm X Speeches and Writings (Atlanta, GA: Pathfinder Press, 1992), 59. 2. Malcolm X and Alex Haley, The Autobiography of Malcolm X (New York: Onew World Books, February 1992), 43. 3. Henry Hampton, Steve Fayer and Sarah Flynn, “Malcolm X, Our Shining Black Prince” in Voices of Freedom, (New York: Bantam Books, 1990), 243. 4. The New York Times, “Malcolm X Scores U.S. and Kennedy,” December 2, 1963, 21. 5. Peniel E. Joseph, Dark Days, Bright Nights: From Black Power to Barack Obama (New York: Basic Books, 2010), 36; Waiting ‘Till the Midnight Hour – A Narrative History of Black Power in America (New York: Henry Holt, 2006), n. 322. 6. “Malcolm X’s Detroit Date Sparks Battle of Ministers,” The Afro-American, Baltimore, Maryland, April 11, 1964. 7. Joseph, Dark Days, Bright Nights, 83. 8. “Malcolm X,” New York Times, February 22, 1965, 20.

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Business Data Communications and Networking

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Business Data Communications and Networking

Thirteenth Edition

Jerry Fi tzGerald Jerry FitzGerald & Associates

Alan Dennis Indiana University

Alexandra Durcikova University of Oklahoma

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ACQUISITIONS EDITOR Darren Lalonde EDITORIAL MANAGER Gladys Soto CONTENT MANAGEMENT DIRECTOR Lisa Wojcik CONTENT MANAGER Nichole Urban SENIOR CONTENT SPECIALIST Nicole Repasky PRODUCTION EDITOR Padmapriya Soundararajan PHOTO RESEARCHER Billy Ray COVER PHOTO CREDIT © Wright Studio/Shutterstock

This book was set in 10/12, Minion Pro by SPi Global and printed and bound by Strategic Content Imaging.

Founded in 1807, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. has been a valued source of knowledge and understanding for more than 200 years, helping people around the world meet their needs and fulfill their aspirations. Our company is built on a foun- dation of principles that include responsibility to the communities we serve and where we live and work. In 2008, we launched a Corporate Citizenship Initiative, a global effort to address the environmental, social, economic, and ethical challenges we face in our business. Among the issues we are addressing are carbon impact, paper specifications and pro- curement, ethical conduct within our business and among our vendors, and community and charitable support. For more information, please visit our website: www.wiley.com/go/citizenship.

Copyright © 2017, 2015, 2012, 2009, 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning or otherwise, except as permitted under Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923 (Web site: www.copyright.com). Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030-5774, (201) 748-6011, fax (201) 748-6008, or online at: www.wiley.com/go/permissions.

Evaluation copies are provided to qualified academics and professionals for review purposes only, for use in their courses during the next academic year. These copies are licensed and may not be sold or transferred to a third party. Upon com- pletion of the review period, please return the evaluation copy to Wiley. Return instructions and a free of charge return shipping label are available at: www.wiley.com/go/returnlabel. If you have chosen to adopt this textbook for use in your course, please accept this book as your complimentary desk copy. Outside of the United States, please contact your local sales representative.

ISBN: 978-1-119-36883-0 (PBK) ISBN: 978-1-119-36885-4 (EVALC)

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data: LCCN: 2017042819

The inside back cover will contain printing identification and country of origin if omitted from this page. In addition, if the ISBN on the back cover differs from the ISBN on this page, the one on the back cover is correct.

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To my son Alec, Alan

To all curious minds who want to know how today’s modern world works.

Alexandra

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ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Alan Dennis is a Fellow of the Association for Information Systems and a professor of information systems in the Kelley School of Business at Indiana University. He holds the John T. Chambers Chair in Internet Systems, which was established to honor John Chambers, president and chief executive officer of Cisco Systems, the worldwide leader of networking technologies for the Internet.

Prior to joining Indiana University, Alan spent nine years as a professor at the University of Georgia, where he won the Richard B. Russell Award for Excellence in Undergraduate Teaching. He has a bachelor’s degree in computer science from Acadia University in Nova Scotia, Canada, and an MBA from Queen’s University in Ontario, Canada. His PhD in management of information systems is from the University of Arizona. Prior to entering the Arizona doctoral program, he spent three years on the faculty of the Queen’s School of Business.

Alan has extensive experience in the development and application of groupware and Internet technologies and co-founded Courseload, an electronic textbook company whose goal is to improve learning and reduce the cost of textbooks. He has won many awards for theoretical and applied research and has published more than 150 business and research articles, including those in Management Science, MIS Quarterly, Information Systems Research, Academy of Management Journal, Organization Behavior and Human Decision Making, Journal of Applied Psychology, Communications of the ACM, and IEEE Transactions of Systems, Man, and Cybernetics. His first book was Getting Started with Microcomputers, published in 1986. Alan is also an author of two systems analysis and design books published by Wiley. He is the cochair of the Internet Tech- nologies Track of the Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences. He has served as a consultant to BellSouth, Boeing, IBM, Hughes Missile Systems, the U.S. Department of Defense, and the Australian Army.

Alexandra Durcikova is an Assistant Professor at the Price College of Business, University of Oklahoma. Alexandra has a PhD in management information systems from the University of Pittsburgh. She has earned an MSc degree in solid state physics from Comenius University, Bratislava, worked as an experimental physics researcher in the area of superconductivity and as an instructor of executive MBA students prior to pursuing her PhD. Alexandra’s research interests include knowledge management and knowledge management systems, the role of organizational climate in the use of knowledge management systems, knowledge management system characteristics, governance mechanisms in the use of knowledge management systems, and human compliance with security policy and characteristics of successful phishing attempts within the area of network security. Her research appears in Information Systems Research, MIS Quarterly, Journal of Management Information Systems, Information Systems Journal, Journal of Organizational and End User Computing, International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, and Communications of the ACM.

Alexandra has been teaching business data communications to both undergraduate and grad- uate students for several years. In addition, she has been teaching classes on information technol- ogy strategy and most recently won the Dean’s Award for Undergraduate Teaching Excellence while teaching at the University of Arizona.

Dr. Jerry FitzGerald wrote the early editions of this book in the 1980s. At the time, he was the principal in Jerry FitzGerald & Associates, a firm he started in 1977.

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PREFACE

The field of data communications has grown faster and become more important than computer processing itself. Though they go hand in hand, the ability to communicate and connect with other computers and mobile devices is what makes or breaks a business today. There are three trends that support this notion. First, the wireless LAN and Bring-Your-Own-Device (BYOD) allow us to stay connected not only with the workplace but also with family and friends. Second, computers and networks are becoming an essential part of not only computers but also devices we use for other purpose, such as home appliances. This Internet of things allows you to set the thermostat in your home from your mobile phone, can help you cook a dinner, or eventually can allow you to drive to work without ever touching the steering wheel. Lastly, we see that a lot of life is moving online. At first this started with games, but education, politics, and activism followed swiftly. Therefore, understanding how networks work; how they should be set up to support scalability, mobility, and security; and how to manage them is of utmost importance to any business. This need will call not only for engineers who deeply understand the technical aspects of networks but also for highly social individuals who embrace technology in creative ways to allow business to achieve a competitive edge through utilizing this technology. So the call is for you who are reading this book—you are at the right place at the right time!

PURPOSE OF THIS BOOK Our goal is to combine the fundamental concepts of data communications and networking with practical applications. Although technologies and applications change rapidly, the fundamental concepts evolve much more slowly; they provide the foundation from which new technologies and applications can be understood, evaluated, and compared.

This book has two intended audiences. First and foremost, it is a university textbook. Each chapter introduces, describes, and then summarizes fundamental concepts and applications. Man- agement Focus boxes highlight key issues and describe how networks are actually being used today. Technical Focus boxes highlight key technical issues and provide additional detail. Mini case studies at the end of each chapter provide the opportunity to apply these technical and man- agement concepts. Hands-on exercises help to reinforce the concepts introduced in the chapter. Moreover, the text is accompanied by a detailed Instructor’s Manual that provides additional back- ground information, teaching tips, and sources of material for student exercises, assignments, and exams. Finally, our Web page contains supplements to our book.

Second, this book is intended for the professional who works in data communications and networking. The book has many detailed descriptions of the technical aspects of communica- tions from a business perspective. Moreover, managerial, technical, and sales personnel can use this book to gain a better understanding of fundamental concepts and trade-offs not presented in technical books or product summaries.

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Preface vii

WHAT’S NEW IN THIS EDITION The thirteenth edition maintains the three main themes of the twelfth edition, namely, (1) how networks work (Chapters 1–5); (2) network technologies (Chapters 6–10); and (3) network secu- rity and management (Chapters 11 and 12). In the new edition, we removed older technologies and replaced them with new ones. Accordingly, new hands-on activities and questions have been added at the end of each chapter that guide students in understanding how to select technolo- gies to build a network that would support an organization’s business needs. In addition to this overarching change, the thirteenth edition has three major changes from the twelfth edition:

First, at the end of each chapter, we provide key implications for cyber security that arise from the topics discussed in the chapter. We draw implications that focus on improving the management of networks and information systems as well as implications for cyber security of an individual and an organization.

The second major change is that in Chapter 5 we have revised the way we explain how TCP/IP works to make it clearer and more streamlined.

Third, we have revised the security chapter (Chapter 11) to consider some of the newer threats and responses.

LAB EXERCISES www.wiley.com/college/fitzgerald

This edition includes an online lab manual with many hands-on exercises that can be used in a networking lab. These exercises include configuring servers and other additional practical topics.

ONLINE SUPPLEMENTS FOR INSTRUCTORS www.wiley.com/college/fitzgerald

Instructor’s supplements comprise an Instructor’s Manual that includes teaching tips, war stories, and answers to end-of-chapter questions; a Test Bank that includes true-false, multiple choice, short answer, and essay test questions for each chapter; and Lecture Slides in PowerPoint for classroom presentations. All are available on the instructor’s book companion site.

E-BOOK Wiley E-Text: Powered by VitalSource offers students continuing access to materials for their course. Your students can access content on a mobile device, online from any Internet-connected computer, or by a computer via download. With dynamic features built into this e-text, students can search across content, highlight, and take notes that they can share with teachers and classmates. Readers will also have access to interactive images and embedded podcasts. Visit www.wiley.com/college/fitzgerald for more information.http://www.wiley.com/college/fitzgerald http://www.wiley.com/college/fitzgerald

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viii Preface

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Our thanks to the many people who helped in preparing this edition. Specifically, we want to thank the staff at John Wiley & Sons for their support.

Alan Dennis Bloomington, Indiana

www.kelley.indiana.edu/ardennis

Alexandra Durcikova Norman, Oklahoma

http://www.ou.edu/price/mis/people/alexandra_durcikova.html

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CONTENTS

About the Authors v Preface vi

PART ONE INTRODUCTION 1 Chapter 1

Introduction to Data Communications 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Data Communications Networks 4

1.2.1 Components of a Network 4 1.2.2 Types of Networks 5

1.3 Network Models 7 1.3.1 Open Systems Interconnection

Reference Model 7 1.3.2 Internet Model 9 1.3.3 Message Transmission Using

Layers 10 1.4 Network Standards 13

1.4.1 The Importance of Standards 13 1.4.2 The Standards-Making Process 13 1.4.3 Common Standards 15

1.5 Future Trends 16 1.5.1 Wireless LAN and BYOD 16 1.5.2 The Internet of Things 17 1.5.3 Massively Online 17

1.6 Implications for Cyber Security 18

PART TWO FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS 25 Chapter 2

Application Layer 25 2.1 Introduction 25 2.2 Application Architectures 26

2.2.1 Host-Based Architectures 27 2.2.2 Client-Based Architectures 28 2.2.3 Client-Server Architectures 28 2.2.4 Cloud Computing Architectures 31 2.2.5 Peer-to-Peer Architectures 33 2.2.6 Choosing Architectures 34

2.3 World Wide Web 35 2.3.1 How the Web Works 35 2.3.2 Inside an HTTP Request 36 2.3.3 Inside an HTTP Response 37

2.4 Electronic Mail 39 2.4.1 How Email Works 39 2.4.2 Inside an SMTP Packet 42 2.4.3 Attachments in Multipurpose Internet

Mail Extension 43 2.5 Other Applications 43

2.5.1 Telnet 44 2.5.2 Instant Messaging 45 2.5.3 Videoconferencing 45

2.6 Implications for Cyber Security 47

Chapter 3

Physical Layer 57 3.1 Introduction 57 3.2 Circuits 59

3.2.1 Circuit Configuration 59 3.2.2 Data Flow 60 3.2.3 Multiplexing 60

3.3 Communication Media 63 3.3.1 Twisted Pair Cable 63 3.3.2 Coaxial Cable 64 3.3.3 Fiber-Optic Cable 64 3.3.4 Radio 65 3.3.5 Microwave 66 3.3.6 Satellite 66 3.3.7 Media Selection 68

3.4 Digital Transmission of Digital Data 69 3.4.1 Coding 69 3.4.2 Transmission Modes 69

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3.4.3 Digital Transmission 71 3.4.4 How Ethernet Transmits Data 72

3.5 Analog Transmission of Digital Data 73 3.5.1 Modulation 73 3.5.2 Capacity of a Circuit 76 3.5.3 How Modems Transmit Data 76

3.6 Digital Transmission of Analog Data 77 3.6.1 Translating from Analog to Digital 77 3.6.2 How Telephones Transmit Voice

Data 77 3.6.3 How Instant Messenger Transmits

Voice Data 79 3.6.4 Voice over Internet Protocol

(VoIP) 80 3.7 Implications for Cyber Security 80

Chapter 4

Data Link Layer 88 4.1 Introduction 88 4.2 Media Access Control 89

4.2.1 Contention 89 4.2.2 Controlled Access 89 4.2.3 Relative Performance 90

4.3 Error Control 91 4.3.1 Sources of Errors 91 4.3.2 Error Prevention 93 4.3.3 Error Detection 94 4.3.4 Error Correction via

Retransmission 95 4.3.5 Forward Error Correction 95 4.3.6 Error Control in Practice 97

4.4 Data Link Protocols 97 4.4.1 Asynchronous Transmission 97 4.4.2 Synchronous Transmission 98

4.5 Transmission Efficiency 101 4.6 Implications for Cyber Security 103

Chapter 5

NETWORK AND TRANSPORT LAYERS 110 5.1 Introduction 110 5.2 Transport and Network Layer Protocols 112

5.2.1 Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) 112

5.2.2 Internet Protocol (IP) 113

5.3 Transport Layer Functions 114 5.3.1 Linking to the Application Layer 114 5.3.2 Segmenting 115 5.3.3 Session Management 116

5.4 Addressing 119 5.4.1 Assigning Addresses 120 5.4.2 Address Resolution 125

5.5 Routing 127 5.5.1 Types of Routing 128 5.5.2 Routing Protocols 130 5.5.3 Multicasting 132 5.5.4 The Anatomy of a Router 133

5.6 TCP/IP Example 134 5.6.1 Known Addresses 136 5.6.2 Unknown Addresses 137 5.6.3 TCP Connections 138 5.6.4 TCP/IP and Network Layers 139

5.7 Implications for Cyber Security 141

PART THREE NETWORK TECHNOLOGIES 159 Chapter 6

Network Design 159 6.1 Introduction 159

6.1.1 Network Architecture Components 159

6.1.2 The Traditional Network Design Process 161

6.1.3 The Building-Block Network Design Process 162

6.2 Needs Analysis 164 6.2.1 Network Architecture

Component 165 6.2.2 Application Systems 166 6.2.3 Network Users 166 6.2.4 Categorizing Network Needs 166 6.2.5 Deliverables 167

6.3 Technology Design 168 6.3.1 Designing Clients and Servers 168 6.3.2 Designing Circuits 168 6.3.3 Network Design Tools 170 6.3.4 Deliverables 171

6.4 Cost Assessment 171 6.4.1 Request for Proposal 171

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Contents xi

6.4.2 Selling the Proposal to Management 173

6.4.3 Deliverables 173 6.5 Implications for Cyber Security 173

Chapter 7

Wired and Wireless Local Area Networks 177 7.1 Introduction 177 7.2 LAN Components 178

7.2.1 Network Interface Cards 179 7.2.2 Network Circuits 179 7.2.3 Network Hubs, Switches, and Access

Points 180 7.2.4 Network Operating Systems 183

7.3 Wired Ethernet 184 7.3.1 Topology 184 7.3.2 Media Access Control 187 7.3.3 Types of Ethernet 188

7.4 Wireless Ethernet 189 7.4.1 Topology 189 7.4.2 Media Access Control 189 7.4.3 Wireless Ethernet Frame Layout 190 7.4.4 Types of Wireless Ethernet 191 7.4.5 Security 192

7.5 The Best Practice LAN Design 193 7.5.1 Designing User Access with Wired

Ethernet 194 7.5.2 Designing User Access with Wireless

Ethernet 195 7.5.3 Designing the Data Center 197 7.5.4 Designing the e-Commerce Edge 199 7.5.5 Designing the SOHO

Environment 200 7.6 Improving LAN Performance 202

7.6.1 Improving Server Performance 203 7.6.2 Improving Circuit Capacity 204 7.6.3 Reducing Network Demand 204

7.7 Implications for Cyber Security 205

Chapter 8

Backbone Networks 214 8.1 Introduction 214 8.2 Switched Backbones 215 8.3 Routed Backbones 218

8.4 Virtual LANs 221 8.4.1 Benefits of VLANs 221 8.4.2 How VLANs Work 223

8.5 The Best Practice Backbone Design 226 8.6 Improving Backbone Performance 227

8.6.1 Improving Device Performance 227 8.6.2 Improving Circuit Capacity 228 8.6.3 Reducing Network Demand 228

8.7 Implications for Cyber Security 228

Chapter 9

Wide Area Networks 237 9.1 Introduction 237 9.2 Dedicated-Circuit Networks 238

9.2.1 Basic Architecture 238 9.2.2 T-Carrier Services 241 9.2.3 SONET Services 243

9.3 Packet-Switched Networks 243 9.3.1 Basic Architecture 243 9.3.2 Frame Relay Services 245 9.3.3 IP Services 246 9.3.4 Ethernet Services 246

9.4 Virtual Private Networks 247 9.4.1 Basic Architecture 247 9.4.2 VPN Types 248 9.4.3 How VPNs Work 248

9.5 The Best Practice WAN Design 251 9.6 Improving WAN Performance 252

9.6.1 Improving Device Performance 252 9.6.2 Improving Circuit Capacity 253 9.6.3 Reducing Network Demand 253

9.7 Implications for Cyber Security 254

Chapter 10

The Internet 265 10.1 Introduction 265 10.2 How the Internet Works 266

10.2.1 Basic Architecture 266 10.2.2 Connecting to an ISP 268 10.2.3 The Internet Today 269

10.3 Internet Access Technologies 270 10.3.1 Digital Subscriber Line 270 10.3.2 Cable Modem 271 10.3.3 Fiber to the Home 273 10.3.4 WiMax 274

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xii Contents

10.4 The Future of the Internet 274 10.4.1 Internet Governance 274 10.4.2 Building the Future 276

10.5 Implications for Cyber Security 277

PART FOUR NETWORK MANAGEMENT 284 Chapter 11

Network Security 284 11.1 Introduction 284

11.1.1 Why Networks Need Security 286 11.1.2 Types of Security Threats 286 11.1.3 Network Controls 287

11.2 Risk Assessment 288 11.2.1 Develop Risk Measurement

Criteria 289 11.2.2 Inventory IT Assets 290 11.2.3 Identify Threats 291 11.2.4 Document Existing Controls 293 11.2.5 Identify Improvements 296

11.3 Ensuring Business Continuity 296 11.3.1 Virus Protection 296 11.3.2 Denial-of-Service Protection 297 11.3.3 Theft Protection 300 11.3.4 Device Failure Protection 301 11.3.5 Disaster Protection 302

11.4 Intrusion Prevention 305 11.4.1 Security Policy 306 11.4.2 Perimeter Security and Firewalls 306 11.4.3 Server and Client Protection 312 11.4.4 Encryption 315 11.4.5 User Authentication 321 11.4.6 Preventing Social Engineering 324

11.4.7 Intrusion Prevention Systems 325 11.4.8 Intrusion Recovery 327

11.5 Best Practice Recommendations 328 11.6 Implications for Your Cyber Security 330

Chapter 12

Network Management 340 12.1 Introduction 340 12.2 Designing for Network Performance 341

12.2.1 Managed Networks 341 12.2.2 Managing Network Traffic 345 12.2.3 Reducing Network Traffic 346

12.3 Configuration Management 349 12.3.1 Configuring the Network and Client

Computers 349 12.3.2 Documenting the Configuration

350 12.4 Performance and Fault Management 351

12.4.1 Network Monitoring 351 12.4.2 Failure Control Function 353 12.4.3 Performance and Failure

Statistics 355 12.4.4 Improving Performance 358

12.5 End User Support 358 12.5.1 Resolving Problems 358 12.5.2 Providing End User Training 360

12.6 Cost Management 360 12.6.1 Sources of Costs 360 12.6.2 Reducing Costs 363

12.7 Implications for Cyber Security 364

Appendices (Online) Glossary (Online) Index 373

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PART ONE INTRODUCTION

C H A P T E R 1

INTRODUCTION TO DATA COMMUNICATIONS

This chapter introduces the basic concepts of data communications. It describes why it is impor- tant to study data communications and introduces you to the three fundamental questions that this book answers. Next, it discusses the basic types and components of a data communications network. Also, it examines the importance of a network model based on layers. Finally, it describes the three key trends in the future of networking.

OBJECTIVES ◾ Be aware of the three fundamental questions this book answers ◾ Be aware of the applications of data communications networks ◾ Be familiar with the major components of and types of networks ◾ Understand the role of network layers ◾ Be familiar with the role of network standards ◾ Be aware of cyber security issues ◾ Be aware of three key trends in communications and networking

OUTLINE 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Data Communications Networks

1.2.1 Components of a Network 1.2.2 Types of Networks

1.3 Network Models 1.3.1 Open Systems Interconnection

Reference Model 1.3.2 Internet Model 1.3.3 Message Transmission Using Layers

1.4 Network Standards

1.4.1 The Importance of Standards 1.4.2 The Standards-Making Process 1.4.3 Common Standards

1.5 Future Trends 1.5.1 Wireless LAN and BYOD 1.5.2 The Internet of Things 1.5.3 Massively Online

1.6 Implications for Cyber Security Summary

1.1 INTRODUCTION What Internet connection should you use? Cable modem or DSL (formally called Digital Sub- scriber Line)? Cable modems are supposedly faster than DSL, providing data speeds of 50 Mbps to DSL’s 1.5–25 Mbps (million bits per second). One cable company used a tortoise to represent DSL in advertisements. So which is faster? We’ll give you a hint. Which won the race in the fable, the tortoise or the hare? By the time you finish this book, you’ll understand which is faster and why, as well as why choosing the right company as your Internet service provider (ISP) is probably more important than choosing the right technology.

Over the past decade or so, it has become clear that the world has changed forever. We con- tinue to forge our way through the Information Age—the second Industrial Revolution, according

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2 Chapter 1 Introduction to Data Communications

to John Chambers, CEO (chief executive officer) of Cisco Systems, Inc., one of the world’s leading networking technology companies. The first Industrial Revolution revolutionized the way people worked by introducing machines and new organizational forms. New companies and industries emerged, and old ones died off.

The second Industrial Revolution is revolutionizing the way people work through network- ing and data communications. The value of a high-speed data communications network is that it brings people together in a way never before possible. In the 1800s, it took several weeks for a message to reach North America by ship from England. By the 1900s, it could be transmitted within an hour. Today, it can be transmitted in seconds. Collapsing the information lag to Internet speeds means that people can communicate and access information anywhere in the world regard- less of their physical location. In fact, today’s problem is that we cannot handle the quantities of information we receive.

Data communications and networking is a truly global area of study, both because the technology enables global communication and because new technologies and applications often emerge from a variety of countries and spread rapidly around the world. The World Wide Web, for example, was born in a Swiss research lab, was nurtured through its first years primarily by European universities, and exploded into mainstream popular culture because of a development at an American research lab.

One of the problems in studying a global phenomenon lies in explaining the different polit- ical and regulatory issues that have evolved and currently exist in different parts of the world. Rather than attempt to explain the different paths taken by different countries, we have chosen simplicity instead. Historically, the majority of readers of previous editions of this book have come from North America. Therefore, although we retain a global focus on technology and its business implications, we focus mostly on North America.

This book answers three fundamental questions. First, how does the Internet work? When you access a website using your computer, laptop,

iPad, or smartphone, what happens so that the page opens in your Web browser? This is the focus in Chapters 1–5. The short answer is that the software on your computer (or any device) creates a message composed in different software languages (HTTP, TCP/IP, and Ethernet are common) that requests the page you clicked. This message is then broken up into a series of smaller parts that we call packets. Each packet is transmitted to the nearest router, which is a special-purpose computer whose primary job is to find the best route for these packets to their final destination. The packets move from router to router over the Internet until they reach the Web server, which puts the packets back together into the same message that your computer created. The Web server reads your request and then sends the page back to you in the same way—by composing a message using HTTP, TCP/IP, and Ethernet and then sending it as a series of smaller packets back through the Internet that the software on your computer puts together into the page you requested. You might have heard a news story that the U.S. or Chinese government can read your email or see what websites you’re visiting. A more shocking truth is that the person sitting next you at a coffee shop might be doing exactly the same thing—reading all the packets that come from or go to your laptop. How is this possible, you ask? After finishing Chapter 5, you will know exactly how this is possible.

Second, how do I design a network? This is the focus of Chapters 6–10. We often think about networks in four layers. The first layer is the Local Area Network, or the LAN (either wired or wireless), which enables users like you and me to access the network. The second is the backbone network that connects the different LANs within a building. The third is the core network that connects different buildings on a company’s campus. The final layer is connections we have to the other campuses within the organization and to the Internet. Each of these layers has slightly different concerns, so the way we design networks for them and the technologies we use are

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Introduction 3

slightly different. Although this describes the standard for building corporate networks, you will have a much better understanding of how your wireless router at home works. Perhaps more importantly, you’ll learn why buying the newest and fastest wireless router for your house or apart- ment is probably not a good way to spend your money.

Finally, how do I manage my network to make sure it is secure, provides good performance, and doesn’t cost too much? This is the focus of Chapters 11 and 12. Would it surprise you to learn that most companies spend between $1,500 and $3,500 per computer per year on network man- agement and security? Yup, we spend way more on network management and security each year than we spend to buy the computer in the first place. And that’s for well-run networks; poorly run networks cost a lot more. Many people think network security …

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The Wireshark protocol analyzer has limited capabilities and is not considered multi-faceted.

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20 questions , multiple choice

Question 1

1. Which of the following statements is true?

[removed]		The Wireshark protocol analyzer has limited capabilities and is not considered multi-faceted.
[removed]		Wireshark is used to find anomalies in network traffic as well as to troubleshoot application performance issues.
[removed]		Both Wireshark and NetWitness Investigator are expensive tools that are cost-prohibitive for most organizations.
[removed]		NetWitness Investigator is available at no charge while Wireshark is a commercial product.

5 points

Question 2

1. Wireshark capture files, like the DemoCapturepcap file found in this lab, have a __________ extension, which stands for packet capture, next generation.

[removed]		.packcng
[removed]		.paccapnextg
[removed]		.pcnextgen
[removed]		.pcapng

5 points

Question 3

1. The Wireless Toolbar (View > Wireless Toolbar) is used only:

[removed]		when using a pre-captured file.
[removed]		when capturing live traffic.
[removed]		when reviewing wireless traffic.
[removed]		in a virtual lab environment.

5 points

Question 4

1. In the frame detail pane, which of the following was a field unique to wireless traffic, confirming that it is a wireless packet?

[removed]		The Encapsulation type: Per-Packet Information header
[removed]		The Arrival time: May 11, 2007 15:30:37 041165000 Pacific Daylight Time
[removed]		The Capture Length: 181 bytes
[removed]		The Epoch Time: 1178922637.041165000 seconds

5 points

Question 5

1. Which of the following tools provides information about the antennae signal strengths, noise ratios, and other antennae information during a captured transmission?

[removed]		Windows Explorer
[removed]		DemoCapture
[removed]		Wireshark
[removed]		NetWitness

5 points

Question 6

1. Which of the following can be used to map who is able to communicate with whom, the measured strength of signals, and what frequencies are used, as well as be used for jamming certain frequencies and for determining which devices were likely used to set off remote bombs and Improvised Explosive Devices (IEDs)?

[removed]		MAC+PHY (MAC and Physical Layer)
[removed]		IEEE Layer
[removed]		Flags fields
[removed]		Quality of Service information

5 points

Question 7

1. In the IEEE 802.11 Quality of Service information and Flags fields, Wireshark displays information about the __________, which enables the network administrator to determine which Media Access Control (MAC) addresses match each of them.

[removed]		antennae and signal strength
[removed]		transmitters and receivers of the data
[removed]		payload and frame information
[removed]		Domain System and Internet Protocol version

5 points

Question 8

1. In the lab, Wireshark displayed the transmitter/receiver address in both full hexadecimal (00:14:a5:cd:74:7b) and a kind of shorthand, which was:

[removed]		IEEE 802.11.
[removed]		GemtekTe_IEEE.
[removed]		GemtekTe_00:14:a5.
[removed]		GemtekTe_cd:74:7b.

5 points

Question 9

1. Matching the __________ to their appropriate transmitter and receiver addresses can provide the needed forensic evidence of which devices are involved in a particular communication.

[removed]		MAC addresses
[removed]		IP addresses
[removed]		brand names
[removed]		IEEE numbers

5 points

Question 10

1. Which of the following statements is true regarding the fields displayed in Wireshark?

[removed]		There are hundreds of fields of data available and there are many different ways to interpret them.
[removed]		There are a few dozen fields of data available but there are many different ways to interpret them.
[removed]		There are very few fields of data available and most administrators will interpret them in the same or a similar way.
[removed]		Although there are very few fields of data available, most administrators will interpret them differently.

5 points

Question 11

1. Which of the following is a packet capture add-on that is frequently installed with Wireshark that enables the capture of more wireless information?

[removed]		3Com
[removed]		QoS
[removed]		GemtekTE
[removed]		AirPcap

5 points

Question 12

1. Regardless of whether the packet is sent through the air or on a wire, the ultimate payload in an investigation is:

[removed]		information regarding the transmitters and receivers of the data.
[removed]		detail about the Internet Protocol version.
[removed]		a Domain Name System query.
[removed]		evidence of any suspicious activity.

5 points

Question 13

1. In the lab, the DNS query indicated an IP address of __________ for www.polito.it.

[removed]		172.30.0.100
[removed]		130.192.73.1
[removed]		177.390.13.6
[removed]		172.30.121.1

5 points

Question 14

1. What is the actual Web host name to which www.polito.it is resolved?

[removed]		web01.polito.gov
[removed]		web01.polito.it
[removed]		web01.polito.com
[removed]		www.polito.com

5 points

Question 15

1. In order to use NetWitness Investigator to analyze the same packets that you analyzed with Wireshark, you first had to save the DemoCapturepcap.pcapng file in the older __________ format.

[removed]		.libpcap
[removed]		.tcpdump-libcap
[removed]		.pcapng
[removed]		.pcap

5 points

Question 16

1. Which of the following statements is true regarding NetWitness Investigator?

[removed]		NetWitness Investigator is available for free so it is only used for some initial analysis.
[removed]		NetWitness Investigator is often used only by skilled analysts for specific types of analysis.
[removed]		Investigators with little training typically can capture needed information using NetWitness Investigator.
[removed]		Wireshark provides a more in-depth, security-focused analysis than NetWitness Investigator.

5 points

Question 17

1. Which of the following statements is true regarding NetWitness Investigator reports?

[removed]		NetWitness reports contain only low-level wireless information, such as command and control.
[removed]		NetWitness reports do not provide the kind of sophisticated analysis that is found within Wireshark.
[removed]		NetWitness and Wireshark both provide the same information but the two tools differ in how that information is displayed.
[removed]		NetWitness is unable to provide information about the geographic location of the transmitter and receiver.

5 points

Question 18

1. Which of the following tools displays the MAC address and IP address information and enables them to be correlated for a given capture transmission?

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[removed]		DemoCapture
[removed]		Wireshark
[removed]		NetWitness Investigator
[removed]		Both Wireshark and NetWitness Investigator

5 points

Question 19

1. When you were using NetWitness Investigator in the lab, the Destination City report indicated that the Destination Organization of www.polito.it was recorded as:

[removed]		Turin Polytechnic.
[removed]		Politecnico de Tourino.
[removed]		Republic of Italia.
[removed]		Turin, Italy.

5 points

Question 20

1. Which of the following statements is true regarding the information in the Destination City report?

[removed]		The Top Level Domain (TLD) “.it” belongs to Italy.
[removed]		The Top Level Domain (TLD) “.it” is proofthat the Web site is physically located in Italy.
[removed]		The Top Level Domain (TLD) was actually registered in the United States.
[removed]		It indicates that it will be impossible to determine the actual physical location of the server

Tags analyzer, capabilities, considered, limited, multi, protocol, wireshark

Writers Solution

British and Russian Empires vied for control of central Asia

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Post date January 20, 2022
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300+ Words

Question: During the 1800’s, the British and Russian Empires vied for control of central Asia. This often resulted in acts of outright conflict. While this ‘war’ was undeclared, it was referred to as the “Great Game.” Do you believe that we are already in a Cyber War? Whether you answer yes or no, please reflect upon what that means for intelligence efforts and national security

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Tags british, central, control, empires, russian

Writers Solution

Launch your Wireshark and open SMTP_Capture file. Rememer, Wireshark has three panels and you will be looking at these panels to answer the Deliverables

Purpose

In this activity, you will see the different PDUs in the e-mail messages that you send. However, instead of creating and sending “live” e-mail, I have included here a sample SMTP capture (see Figure 2-21) that you can open with your Wireshark.

book of this course is:

http://library.alexingram.net/Business%20Data%20Communications%20and%20Networking%20(13th%20Edition)%20%5BFitzgerald%2C%20Dennis%2C%20Durcikova%5D.pdf

Directions

1. Launch your Wireshark and open SMTP_Capture file. Rememer, Wireshark has three panels and you will be looking at these panels to answer the Deliverables.

2. Look at Packet #8, the start of the message from Sender. Click packet # 8 and see what happens in the middle and bottom panels. Take a screenshot of the Sender’s address

3. Click Packet # 14 and see if you can read the message in the bottom panel (see Figure 2-21, p. 54). Take a screenshot of the Sender’s message.

4. Create a WORD document and paste your two screenshots in this document. Write a short essay (3-4 paragraphs) describing your activity. Your essay should include the answers to the three Deliverables (p. 55-56).

5. Click a few more packets and review the displayed information in the middle and bottom panels. Pay attention to the different layers and PDUs of each packet. Are they all the same?

6. Challenge yourself and see if you can use Wireshark and capture SMTP packets using your student e-mail

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Tags capture, launch, panels, rememer, three, wireshark

Writers Solution

2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development adopted by the United Nations in 2015

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Post date January 20, 2022
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Sustainable Electricity Generation

The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development adopted by the United Nations in 2015, has 17 Sustainable Development Goals. https://sdgs.un.org/goals Goal #7 is “Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all”. https://sdgs.un.org/goals/goal7

After reviewing the UN Sustainable Development Goals, do research and write a paper entitled: Sustainable Electricity Generation in ___A (fill in the blank)____. You should discuss how electricity is produced by ____B (fill in the blank)_____ methods. Determine the percent contributions of the different types of electricity generation and plans for future generation capability (if future plans can be found, or maybe trends can be identified). For each method of production, summarize environmental, economic, and societal considerations. Summarize the role of an engineer, considering ethical and professional responsibilities. The National Society of Professional Engineers (NSPE) Code of Ethics for Engineers https://www.nspe.org/resources/ethics/code-ethics .

Fill-in-blank options for “A” = location, like: San Antonio, Texas, Hawaii, California, United States, Mexico, China, Europe, Germany, France, Japan, Africa, Russia, etc.

Fill-in-blank options for “B” = method of generation, like coal, oil, natural gas, wind, nuclear, hydroelectric, solar, etc.

The report should be written using ASME paper template:

https://www.asme.org/publicationssubmissions/proceedings/author-guidelines/elements-of-a-paper

The ASME website has Word emplates files are available for download. In the top-right corner of first page, for conference header use:

ME 3293 Thermodynamics I

The University of California at Los Angeles

Spring, 2022

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Tags adopted, agenda, development, nations, sustainable, united

Writers Solution

Identify the organization’s internal strengths and weaknesses;

Post author By admin
Post date January 20, 2022
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4 pages 4 references

Each case study should be a mini-case study, in that it will not encompass all of the elements of a full formal case study, but that focuses on these specific elements:

· Briefly introduce the issues of the case. Do not spend a lot of space on the history, development, and growth of the organization over time. We have all read the organization’s Baldrige material.

· Conduct a SWOT analysis:

· Identify the organization’s internal strengths and weaknesses;

· Identify theopportunitiesandthreatsinthe external environment surrounding the organization; and

· Identify what appears to be the strategy pursued by the organization and assess whether it fits effectively with the organization’s SWOT factors.

· Analyze the innovation status of the organization, considering all of the following:

· Product innovation (introduction of a new or improved good or service in either characteristics or use);

· Process innovation (installation of a new or significantly improved method for production or delivery, including techniques, equipment and/or software);

· Marketing innovation (utilization of a new marketing method with a significantly different design or packaging, product placement, product promotion or pricing [the 4 P’s]);

· Organizational innovation (modification to the organization’s business practices, workplace organization or external relations in such a way as to influence competitive advantage); and

· The barriers to innovation and the strategies the organization used to overcome them and their effectiveness.

· Assess the economic consequences of the organization’s innovations and overall strategy:

· Upon organizational performance; and

· For various stakeholders of the organization.

· Respond to any issues and questions:

· That are germane to concepts we are studying in the course (Cases have been chosen and placed where they are in the course because they illustrate important principles that we are studying); and also

· Those that are specific to the specific Case Study Assignment

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Tags identify, internal, organization, strengths, weaknesses