2. You will research a newspaper article on the topic you selected. Below is a list of some newspaper options:
The New York Times: https://www.nytimes.com/
The Washington Post: https://www.washingtonpost.com/
NPR: https://www.npr.org/
The Economist: https://www.economist.com/
The Wall Street Journal: https://www.wsj.com/
BBC News: https://www.bbc.com/news
The Atlantic: https://www.theatlantic.com/
3. Going to a news website and seeing an article immediately will probably not be enough. You will have to do some research. Below is a quick-step guide on how to research a topic.
Let’s pretend my topic is global poverty.
First, I would go to Google. https://www.google.com/
Second, I would type in search words. Get creative. Use different kinds of word combinations. Below are some examples:
example 1: type in the google search box– “global poverty globalization NPR”
example 2: type in the google search box– “poverty Latin America new york times”
example 3: type in the google search box– “poverty globalization Washington post”
Once you find an article, you will write a 1-2 page paper. Half of the paper should be a summary, and the other half should be a sociological analysis.
Summary: tell me what the newspaper article said. Summarize the article’s key points/themes/arguments. Provide specific examples from the article to support those points.
Analysis: tell me how your topic relates to the sociology of globalization. Explain how the newspaper article connects to what you have learned this semester. You want to connect your topic to the chapters and course readings. You want to demonstrate that you can make analytical connections between the newspaper article and sociology.
For example, you could write something like, “My newspaper article relates to the reading titled ______, which focuses on global stratification between developed and developing countries. For example, the reading discusses the concept of ______, which relates to my article because _____.”
4. Your paper must be well-written, have complete sentences, and be grammatically correct. Please proofread your paper before you submit it
Theories lay foundation of every profession. The primary use of theories in nursing is to equip nursing students with important information about the career. This is essential since it prevents the students from drawing irrelevant conclusion about the field (Yancey, 2019). It ensures that the students or other party interested in the field is equipped with all the basic knowledge about the profession. This also aims at introducing nursing students to their future roles and generally what nursing entails.
Nursing as an art and as a science, it has played a key role in helping my personal nursing philosophy to unfold. This is because it has helped me in understanding that majority of nursing students take the path due to passion of helping others. In my perception, it is very clear that nearly all nurses are in love with their jobs since they love the company of many patients and attending to them. It cannot be underestimated that a nurse becomes happy when they see that the patients they are attending to are getting better. That makes nursing both an art and a science.
My nursing assumption have been challenged by numerous factors, the fact that nursing is all about providing services to those around us, many nurses are going contrary to this assumption. This makes me to understand that for one to provide excellent nursing services then one has to accept it deeply from the heart. The service that a nurse will offer to a patient is what will be used in judging the nurse nursing performance. The nursing ethical values are used in monitoring the performance of nurses and by following them then one will offer the best nursing services to their patients.
Personal conflict has been a major crisis that often occurs to my nursing environment. The conflict normally arises due to poor handling of issues with my fellow nurses. Talking rudely to the patient is against the ethical principles that govern nursing. For my case it was uneasy for me to tolerate a fellow nurse talking and panting loudly to a patient. Serving and nurturing for the patients are the fundamental duties of nurses. Mostly, these patients normally are never in their best condition and that is the reason why they require nursing services. A patient can do abnormal things but as a nurse you to accept and understand and try to bring the patient in normal state without causing any harm. This action really affected my relationship with my fellow workmate building a strong bond between the patient and myself. Nursing performance was really shaken since my fellow sidelined some patients to me who were a bit complex to handle.
Illustration of my nursing philosophy has been my biggest agenda in the nursing field. Personalization with patients has been my biggest duty instead of treating the disease the patient suffers from. This has helped in creating a very unique bond with patient. The fact that I come close to the patients makes them feel loved and as a result they share their fears with me hence easy to uproot them. The core reason of reaching out to the patients regardless of their state makes them feel comfortable and have self confidence in themselves (Christopher, 2020). My action has posted numerous positive feedbacks since even the relatives and friends of the patients saw the difference in the patients.
Meta-paradigm nursing is the set of theories which directs how the discipline should perform its function. According to my point of view the meta-paradigm primarily focuse on the nurse who is the provider of the services. This is very vital since the nurse offers great sacrifices in order to help other. For the nursing discipline, the paradigm consists of several theories whose core agenda addresses the care giver as a whole. The nursing performance is clearly stated in the theories and the type of nursing care they should offer to the patient. This shows that the meta-paradigm focuses on both internal and external surrounding of the nurses. Articulation of good relationship between the members of the nursing team is also considered in the paradigm since it will assist in ensuring that no personal conflict arises hence better health care are provided.
My nursing philosophy has positively changed. The change has helped me to understand that not only nurses can care for the patients but also fellow patients can assist each other. This has made me understand that nursing is a mutual exercise which requires participation of all the members involved for it to effectively be of great help.
In conclusion, all the stakeholders’ should understand that proper nursing care requires enough time. This shows that for one to be perfect in offering the services then the nurse should be fully experience and the experience is acquired over time. The nurses should understand their patient in order to offer best nursing services and also to avoid personal conflict. Theories in nursing should not be under rated for they carry important information based on nursing for the good of both the nurses and patients.
References
Hartson, K. R., Della, L., & King, K. M. A feasibility study of a web-based physical activity program for university students: Final report for Sigma Foundation for Nursing.
Christopher, R., de Tantillo, L., & Watson, J. (2020). Academic caring pedagogy, presence, and Communitas in nursing education during the COVID-19 pandemic. Nursing Outlook, 68(6), 822-829.
Yancey, N. R. (2019). Evidence-based practice in nursing for teaching-learning: but is it really nursing?. Nursing science quarterly, 32(1), 25-28
studying the fantasy genre. Genre Paper: You have started reading the literature on your genre and picking out films that you are going to watch. For this update:
Read two more scholarly sources and provide a summary of each article.
To write your summary, first watch my video titled Third Project Update and Analyzing Articles in the project module.
In your summary, get detailed! Most likely, I haven’t read the article so include enough details that I can understand what it is about from your summary. Provide a citation and specify what style guide you are using before each summary. Then in each summary, make sure to answer all of the following questions.
First: What type of piece is it? e.g. report of author’s research, review of a field, meta-analysis, or?Second: What is the thesis? i.e. what is the one main take home point the author is trying to make?Third: What are the author’s objectives? e.g. why did they choose to write this piece; what is their research question; is it a good problem selection?Fourth: What are the most important claims and conclusions?Fifth: What kinds of data and examples are used to support those claims? e.g. original data, factual, statistical, literary, anecdotal….Sixth: Is the article convincing and persuasive?Seventh: What are the weaknesses of the work? You should always be able to find a weakness or something that could have been done better.
Finally, now that you’ve read three articles, list 2 things that you have learned about the genre and which source you learned it from.
Develop and calculate the NPV on an Excel Spreadsheet for the “Option 2 Plan” for the Corkford Brewery acquisition while considering the constraints and operating conditions laid out in the case as well as in the ‘Helpful Hints’ section of this document. Interpret the drivers of the NPV and the implications to the broader business decision. (40 points)
i. For example, the variable costs for Amber Ale is $122.063 per unit
Develop and calculate the NPV on an Excel Spreadsheet for the “Option 3 Plan” for the Corkford Brewery acquisition while considering the constraints and operating conditions laid out in the case as well as in the ‘Helpful Hints’ section of this document. Interpret the drivers of the NPV and the implications to the broader business decision. (40 points)
i. For example, the variable costs for Amber Ale is $122.063 per unit
Add a summary table that compares all three plans and shows all major cost categories. (20 points)
Let us consider a form of sensitivity analysis for this problem. Chose a variable (interest rate and time period cannot be used) and explore the impact on your plans. This question has two parts: (20 points)
Instruction: Write a paragraph response to peer 1 and 2 each, using APA 7 formatting guidelines for in-line citation and references, citing a minimum of 1 source.
peer 1 decision : The first example of effective communication occurred at work. I had a patient that recently was listed for a heart and kidney transplant. Unfortunately, the patient suffered a stroke that caused him to be removed from the list. This was devasting news because the stroke left his treatment options few to none for the time being. The effective communication occurred when the doctor notified the patient that he was no longer a transplant candidate. She muted the TV, made great eye contact, soften here tone, and even ignored a phone call that came through. All these nonverbal gestures showed the patient that the doctor was present and sincere (Friderg & Creasia, 2016).
Another example of effective communication was when an older nurse was listening to her patient talk, she precisely used minimal cues such as “uh huh” and “go on” to show active listening and she even complimented it with some humor. Humor in the right amount and setting can act as a healing aid. Her effective communication led to the patient smiling.
Two examples I saw of ineffective communication were two people arguing and a couple in a movie having a disagreement. The two people arguing were a bad example of communication because nobody was taking the time to actively listen. You cannot give an appropriate response if you do not actively listen. This results in further damage to the relationship. The couple that was having a disagreement in the movie were slightly different. One spouse was pouring out their heart while the other spouse ignored them. The spouse that was ignoring had their arms crossed and their eyes were focused in the opposition direction which all indicated that she was not listening. According to Friderg and Creasia (2016), it is appropriate to make eye contact if it is within the culture norm and it is better to have a relax body stature verse a rigid one (Friderg & Creasia, 2016, p. 165-166).
The three characteristics that a critical thinker possesses that a colleague may say I practice are inquisitiveness, open-mindedness, and maturity. I harbor the characteristic of inquisitiveness because I am constantly asking either doctors or other nurses to explain treatment plans or disease processes. I also like to do research online to better equip myself in my practice. I show open-mindedness and maturity by approaching every problem and patient individually. I realize that what worked in the last situation may not work in the present situation and that there are multiple factors to consider to have successful outcomes. With that being said, finding answers can be difficult but not impossible (Friderg & Creasia, 2016).
peer 2 decision : Effective communication is important in daily interactions. Effective interpersonal communication is particularly vital to the teamwork aspect of nursing care in both acute and critical care settings. From personal experience, effective communication in the nursing setting allows for a relatively even exchange of information between parties in order to achieve the outcome of improved patient status (Friberg, 2020).
An example of effective communication that I participated in was during a medical emergency; the physician asked for medications to relax the patient after intubation to prevent biting on the endotracheal tube but refused a sedative, etomidate, that four different nurses suggested. The physician asked for pain medication, fentanyl, which was ineffective, and then asked for the initially suggested etomidate, which was effective. In this example, the physician missed the nonverbal cue when one nurse stated that she was going to retrieve the etomidate. He also missed other cues when 4 different nurses suggested etomidate instead of fentanyl. We as the nurses did not communicate our disagreements effectively with the physician and failed to include our reasoning for requesting etomidate immediately instead of fentanyl.
Another example of ineffective communication was one that I committed last night. My patient decompensated and was hypotensive. I initially asked a newer nurse to pull epinephrine for me in order to spike a new bag. What I didn’t realize was that I meant to tell her to pull norepinephrine. I realized that I knew what drug I meant for her to pull but didn’t communicate it to her exactly which drug I wanted, which could have resulted in a medication error.
An example of effective communication, also occurring last night, is when the nurse next to me was having a busy time with her patients. Her first patient was on the verge of being emergently intubated, but her other surgical patient had a neurological change requiring an emergent scan. The nurse communicated to me, the respiratory therapist, and the charge nurse what was happening. We all in turn were able to find another therapist to go to the CT scanner with me, while she was able to assist with intubating her patient. The initial nurse was able to effectively communicate that she couldn’t complete both tasks simultaneously and requested help.
A second example of effective communication that is utilized often is closed loop communication, restatement, and clarification. In that same code, we each stated what actions were performed or needed to be done at the specified time so that everyone knew what the next steps were.
In regards to critical thinking, I would identify open-mindedness, analyticity, and inquisitiveness as characteristics that I use within my nursing practice. I have learned to become more open-minded to other viewpoints when reasoning out solutions. I have realized that my scope of a problem can be very limited and have become more open to suggestions based on not only my experience but others’ as well. Inquisitiveness is a trait that come together with analyticity when attempting to help solve a problem; these have come together in my own practice when helping another nurse solve a problem or when confirming solutions before implementation
Research and produce an 8-10 paragraph research in which you argue and prove a thesis related to Holocaust history.
Thesis statement The Holocaust was a tragic incident in the history of human being that taught us very significant lessons such as the danger of silence, the importance of standing up against evils, and the power of evil. This tragic event taught us several key lessons that are important today in the life of human beings and will continue to be passed on from generation to generations.
Attached first draft
1) EXPAND your analysis by adding a few more paragraphs
2) Add in more direct quotes from more sources
Suggested:USE
Night, by Elie Wiesel
Man’s Search For Meaning, by Viktor E. Frankl.
The Holocaust, A Reader, by Simone Giliotti and Berel Lang.
Does humanity learn from history? The Holocaust – Three critical lessons for humanity
Student’s Name
Institutional Affiliation
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Does humanity learn from history? The Holocaust – Three critical lessons for humanity
Nothing sends shivers down the spine of humanity more than the mention of the Holocaust. Holocaust refers to the mass killing of European Jews between 1941-1945. (Polgar, M. 2018). The horror of the Holocaust lies not only with the horrendous experience the Jews had to go through. It lies with the fact that the entire world was silent while the Jews were being killed and forced into concentration camps. The Holocaust was a tragic incident in the history of human beings that taught us very significant lessons, such as the danger of silence, the importance of standing up against evil, and the power of evil.
Holocaust taught us the importance of fighting evil. Holocaust was the epitome of levels of evil that humanity can descend to when left unchecked. The Holocaust was state-sponsored. The killing and systemic persecution of the Jews were due to two beliefs the Nazis had. Firstly they thought that the Jews were an inferior race. (Polgar, M. 2018). They did not see Jews as religious but as a race. The killing of the Jews was an attempt by the Nazi government to rid the Aryan race of Jewish impurity. (Wolff, N. (2020). The German Nazis wanted to develop a superior race, so physicians were very much part of the exercise. This cleansing was done by burning the Jews whole in the crematoriums, shooting them, gassing them and starving them to death in concentration camps. (Polgar, M. 2018).
The Nazi government saw the Jews as an obstacle to their political aspirations. Jews promoted social justice, while the Nazis wanted the strong trampled upon the weak. The sheer atrocities and the lengths they were willing to go to because they saw themselves as superior Aryan race is appalling. Overall, the Nazis killed approximately 6 million Jews, representing about two-thirds of the entire Jewish population. The attempt of the Nazis to annihilate almost an entire people teaches us the power of evil and the extent of that evil when left unchecked. The Nazis could accomplish all these by enacting laws that targeted the Jews because universal human rights had not been declared. The Holocaust was an extreme violation of human rights. The declaration of Human rights by the U.N. was to prevent another genocide. (Polgar, M. 2018).
The Holocaust taught the danger of silence in the face of evil. While Jews were being annihilated and forced into concentration camps, the entire world watched in silence. Throughout 1938-1942 American Newspapers reported on the persecution of the Jews. The News reports on the killing and persecution did not cover much space in the Newspapers. (A Holocaust curriculum (no date) LifeUnworthy of Life. )The much that president Roosevelt was to recall the American Ambassador to Germany and issue a public statement condemning the behaviour. The government officials and president Roosevelt denied the reports or termed the reports as simply ‘unconfirmed’ America with much influence that she had should have responded by placing sanctions on Germany or any other sanctions, but she watched. Infact in 1943, U.S. Airforce took photos of people being forced into gas chambers. When the photos were showcased in the US, John McCloy insisted that the photos should be kept secret. (A Holocaust curriculum (no date) LifeUnworthy of Life.)
When the Jewish leaders asked the U.S. for planes so that they could bomb Auschwitz’s gas chambers, they said that was British responsibility, not theirs. On the other hand, the British responded to the polish and Jewish leaders, saying that such a bombing did not constitute tactical efficiency. America proposed that the only way they could help the Jews was by winning the war against the Germans. (A Holocaust curriculum (no date) Life Unworthy of Life.)The silence and deliberate inaction of the allied officials gave the ticket to the Germans to continue killing the Jews. The last-minute bombing of Budapest by America salvaged almost nothing. The real damage had been done in Germany. Their silence meant that they were in agreement with what the Jews were doing in one way or another.
The Holocaust taught lessons on bioethics that should be taught to the next generation so that such atrocities are not committed again. Levine, writing on the role that physicians played during the Holocaust, argues even in commitment to science, physicians should balance between scepticism and reason when searching for truth. (Levine, M. A.,2019) This means that when searching for answers in medicine, care should be taken that the researchers, for the love of science, abandon all reason. The second lesson that Levine proposes is that physicians should maintain a balance between clinical detachment and necessary humanity and intimacy with their patients. (Levine, M. A.,2019) The physicians operating during the Nazi regime helped shape the Nazi ideology. They believed in Eugenics and experimented on patients to further their professional careers. Levine argues that today’s physicians are faced with the same bioethics problem and should learn from the Holocaust. Human rights lessons should also be included in all levels of learning. When the lessons on the importance of human rights are not taught, the next generation will repeat the mistakes of the past generation. (Hahn, C. L. (2020).
In conclusion, the Holocaust experience taught the world many lessons about humanity. Important lessons include the danger of silence, the importance of standing up against evil, and the power of evil. From the Holocaust also declaration of human rights and the development of bioethics also came about. These lessons should be imparted to the next generation.
Hahn, C. L. (2020). Human rights teaching: Snapshots from four countries. Human Rights Education Review, 3(1), 8-30.
Levine, M. A., Wynia, M. K., Himber, M., & Silvers, W. S. (2019). Pertinent Today: What Contemporary Lessons Should be Taught by Studying Physician Participation in theHolocaust? Conatus-Journal of Philosophy, 4(2), 287-302.
Polgar, M. (2018). Holocaust and Human Rights Education: Good Choices and SociologicalPerspectives. Emerald Group Publishing.
Wolff, N. (2020). Severing a historical bond: The implications of divorcing human rights from holocaust education. Holocaust Studies, 26(3), 306-328
the PowerPoint will inform how social media can help an organization improve in areas such as sales, performance, culture, or positive image. Your audience is the same manager; someone who is familiar with social media but wants to learn more about how they can use it to help their organization reach its goals.
Develop a PowerPoint presentation of 12–18 slides including:
A title slide.
An agenda slide.
An introduction slide.
Body content slides.
Conclusion slide.
A sources slide.
All slides count toward the required length. Start with your slide deck from the Week 5 assignment. Incorporate feedback you received from the professor and expand the presentation for this assignment.
Instructions
Revise your slide deck from Week 5 presentation, taking your professor’s feedback into account.
Revise the title slide.
Revise the agenda slide.
Revise the introduction slide.
Develop 10–15 body slides for your presentation that inform a manager how social media can be used to help an organization reach its goals.
Overview of issue or opportunity.
How a selected social media can be leveraged to resolve an issue or leverage an opportunity to help a company reach its goals.
As you develop your presentation, refer to the general design requirements found in Chapter 12 of your BCOM text.
Your presentation must be submitted in .PPT or .PPTX format. Other submission formats will be returned ungraded. Incorrectly formatted file submissions may be corrected and resubmitted for late credit.
Focus your work on clarity, writing mechanics, professional language, and appropriate style.
Requirements
The PowerPoint presentation must adhere to the following requirements:
Content:
Revise the first three slides of a presentation that addresses the use of social media in the workplace.
Include the title of the presentation, your name, and the presentation date on the title slide.
List the key points that outline the structure of your presentation on the agenda slide.
Provide an overview of the presentation purpose and its context to the target audience in the introduction slide.
Cover the purpose and key points of the presentation in 10–15 body slides with illustrations, images, and graphs/charts that reinforce the key points and purpose.
Use Figure 12.1 Process for Planning, Preparing and Rehearsing Presentation in the BCOM text as a guide for developing your presentation.
Use Figure 12.2 Presentation Planner in the BCOM text to organize the content for your presentation.
Use Figure 8.1 Inductive Outline Used in Persuasive Messages Sent in Written, Electronic, or Spoken Formin the BCOM text as a guide while developing the presentation purpose and key points.
Conclude the presentation using a single slide for the closing that contains a one-sentence wrap-up statement reinforcing the purpose of the presentation.
Provide the required number of two references; all references are peer-reviewed, academic references that are added to a sources slide after your closing slide using the Strayer Writing Standards.
Format:
The presentation should be a minimum of 12 and a maximum of 18 slides including the title and sources slides.
Format your PowerPoint with headings on each slide, use 10–20 graphics throughout, and ensure the presentation adheres to visual best practices as outlined in BCOM.
Use images, graphs/charts, and illustrations as appropriate to support the purpose and key points.
Figure 12.3 Designing Compelling Slides in the BCOM text as a guide to slide design
write 200-250 words that respond to the following questions with your thoughts, ideas, and comments. This will be the foundation for future discussions by your classmates. Be substantive and clear, and use examples to reinforce your ideas.
The general manager of a business encounters many different types of business transactions. Provide an example for each of the following transactions that would describe its effect on the accounting equation. Each situation is independent of the other situations.
The transaction would increase an asset account and increase a liability account.
The transaction would decrease an asset account and decrease the owner’s equity account.
The transaction would increase an asset account and increase the owner’s equity account.
The transaction would decrease an asset account and decrease a liability account.
In this assignment, you will use the scenarios from our Week 2 assignment as the basis for a block business letter in which you communicate bad news to the recipient. Note that this is an ongoing situation, and the recipient has previously requested a review via email, letter, or personal meeting with management. Refer to your textbook for clarity, writing mechanics, professional language, and style guidelines.
Instructions
Choose one of the professional scenarios outlined in this document:
Write a letter from the perspective of a company manager who must communicate the bad news to one of the characters in the scenario you selected.
Use the guidelines outlined in Chapter 7 “Delivering Bad-News Messages” in your BCOM text to help you structure your message, shape your language, select your content, and format your message.
Focus on clarity, writing mechanics, and professional language and style requirements.
Requirements
Content:
Address the communication issue from your chosen scenario.
Provide bad news from the company to the recipient.
Concentrate on the facts of the situation.
Use either the inductive or deductive approach to structure your message.
Address the current and past context of the situation considering your recipient has previously requested a review of the situation.
Include the proper introductory elements of the sender’s address, date, recipient’s address.
You may create any details necessary in the introductory elements to complete the assignment.
Provide an appropriate and professional greeting or salutation.
Format:
Your block business letter should follow the form of Model 7B. Developing the Components of a Bad-News Message example in the textbook:
Reveals subject of message and transitions into reasons.
Supports refusal with logical reasoning.
States refusal positively and clearly using complex sentences and positive language and ends with a forward-looking message to enhance goodwill.
Use single-space paragraphs and double-space between paragraphs.
j ourna l homepage: www.e lsev ie r .com/ locate / jvb
Outcomes of work–life balance on job satisfaction, life satisfaction and mental health: A study across seven cultures
c
Jarrod M. Haar a,1, Marcello Russo b,⁎,1, Albert Suñe c, Ariane Ollier-Malaterre d
a School of Management, Massey University, Private Bag 102904, North Shore City, New Zealand b Department of Management, KEDGE Business School, 680 Cours de la Liberation, 33405 Talence cedex, Bordeaux, France Department of Management, Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, Etseiat, C. Colom 11, 08222 Terrassa, Barcelona, Spain
d Organisation and Human Resources Department, École des Sciences de la Gestion, Université du Québec A Montréal, 315, rue Sainte-Catherine Est, local R-3490, Montréal, Québec H2X 3X2, Canada
a r t i c l e i n f o
⁎ Corresponding author. E-mail addresses: j.haar@massey.ac.nz (J.M. Haar), m
(A. Ollier-Malaterre). Denotes shared first authorship.
Article history: Received 22 May 2014 Available online 7 September 2014
This study investigates the effects of work–life balance (WLB) on several individual outcomes across cultures. Using a sample of 1416 employees from seven distinct populations – Malaysian, Chinese, New Zealand Maori, New Zealand European, Spanish, French, and Italian – SEM analysis showed that WLB was positively related to job and life satisfaction and negatively related to anx- iety and depression across the seven cultures. Individualism/collectivism and gender egalitarian- ism moderated these relationships. High levels of WLB were more positively associated with job and life satisfaction for individuals in individualistic cultures, compared with individuals in collec- tivistic cultures. High levels of WLB were more positively associated with job and life satisfaction and more negatively associated with anxiety for individuals in gender egalitarian cultures. Overall, we find strong support for WLB being beneficial for employees from various cultures and for cul- ture as a moderator of these relationships.
Work–life balance (WLB) is a central concern in everyday discourses (Greenhaus & Allen, 2011; Greenhaus, Collins, & Shaw, 2003; Guest, 2002; Kossek, Valcour, & Lirio, 2014; Maertz & Boyar, 2011). However, despite its popularity, WLB remains one of the least stud- ied concepts in work–life research (Greenhaus & Allen, 2011). Valcour (2007) noted that it is “a concept whose popular usage has outplaced its theoretical development” (p. 1513). A reason for this is the field’s struggle to agree on a common definition of WLB (Greenhaus & Allen, 2011). Another reason is that research on the positive individual outcomes of WLB has been relatively slow to accumulate (Greenhaus & Allen, 2011; Maertz & Boyar, 2011). In addition, most of the current studies focus on work–family balance, without considering individuals’ broader lives including community, leisure, church, sport and other activities (Hall, Kossek, Briscoe, Pichler, & Lee, 2013). In this study we work with a relatively consensual definition of WLB as being an individual’s assessment of how well her or his multiple life roles are balanced (e.g. Greenhaus & Allen, 2011; Haar, 2013; Kossek et al., 2014). We aim to contribute to WLB research at solidifying the concept of WLB by examining its relationship with four important individual outcomes: job satisfac- tion, life satisfaction, anxiety, and depression.
Furthermore, we know very little about the impact of cultures on the relationship between WLB and individual outcomes. A recent review of cross-national work–life research has identified only two cross-cultural studies focusing on WLB compared with 29 focusing
362 J.M. Haar et al. / Journal of Vocational Behavior 85 (2014) 361–373
on conflict and nine on enrichment; the only cultural dimension examined in these studies was gender egalitarianism (Ollier- Malaterre, 2014). This is a clear shortcoming of current research given that numerous calls have been issued to broaden the scope and ambition of work–life research by conducting cross-national studies that consider the impact of multiple cultural dimensions (Greenhaus & Allen, 2011; Kossek, Baltes, & Matthews, 2011; Ollier-Malaterre, Valcour, den Dulk, & Kossek, 2013; Poelmans, 2005). In this paper we address this gap by testing whether the relationships between WLB, job satisfaction, life satisfaction, anxiety, and de- pression are moderated by two important cultural dimensions: (1) individualism/collectivism (I/C) and (2) gender egalitarianism (GE). Based on a sample of 1416 employees from seven distinct cultures – Malaysian, Chinese, New Zealand Maori, New Zealand European, Spanish, French, and Italian, we find strong support for direct effects of WLB across all of the study’s samples. We also find moderating effects of I/C and GE on these relationships.
Our study makes three important contributions to the literature. First, we contribute to establish WLB as a solid construct that sheds light on major individual outcomes, thereby encouraging future research on WLB as a way to better understand a complex work–life interface, and encouraging practitioners to assess their employees’ WLB as part of their HR efforts. Second, our study is unique in the burgeoning body of cross-cultural research on the work–life interface (for a review, see Ollier-Malaterre, 2014) since it is the first, to our knowledge, to focus on WLB rather than work–family conflict or work–family enrichment and to have collected evidence that two dimensions of national culture, i.e. I/C and GE, moderate the relationships between WLB and individual outcomes. The finding that WLB has beneficial outcomes for individuals across seven distinct cultures lends further support to the construct of WLB. Third, our study provides evidence that work–life concepts that originated in Western cultures are generalizable beyond these cultures — we do so by including cultures of growing interest in the literature (e.g. Malaysia and China) as well as understudied cul- tures (e.g. New Zealand European and Maori).
2. Theoretical background and hypotheses
2.1. Work–life balance
Consistent with recent theoretical advancements (e.g. Frone, 2003; Greenhaus & Allen, 2011; Haar, 2013; Kossek et al., 2014), we conceptualize WLB as an individual’s perceptions of how well his or her life roles are balanced. This conceptualization of individuals subjectively gauging balance between the work and the rest of their life (Guest, 2002) is in contrast with prevailing views that considered balance to be equivalent to low role conflict (Duxbury & Higgins, 2001), to high role enrichment (Frone, 2003) or to an equal division of time and attention amongst the several roles that compose an individual’s life system (Marks & MacDermid, 1996). Our definition is grounded in the perception-centred approach that considers work–life balance to be a holistic concept, unique for each person and that depends upon his or her life values, priorities and goals (Kossek et al., 2014).
With a few exceptions (see Hill, Yang, Hawkins, & Ferris, 2004; Lyness & Judiesch, 2014), cross-national research has mostly neglected work–life balance. However, there is general consensus amongst scholars that work–life balance is highly valued by nearly all employees (Kossek et al., 2014) and it has important implications on people’s well-being and work productivity all over the world (Lyness & Judiesch, 2014). Interestingly, research conducted by IBM has shown that people’s nationality does not translate in differences in the expressed desire for work–life balance (Hill et al., 2004). Regarding the effects of WLB, extant research shows that people who perceive balance between their work and life roles tend to be more satisfied of their life and report better physical and mental health (Brough et al., 2014; Carlson, Grzywacz, & Zivnuska, 2009; Ferguson, Carlson, Zivnuska, & Whitten, 2012; Greenhaus et al., 2003; Haar, 2013; Lunau, Bambra, Eikemo, Van der Wel, & Dragano, 2014). Building on these premises, in this article we hypothesize, for two reasons, that WLB will be positively related to job and life satisfaction and negatively related to mental health universally for all employees.
First, we believe that individuals who experience WLB may be more satisfied of their job and life “because they are participating in role activities that are salient to them” (Greenhaus et al., 2003; p. 515). Second, we believe that balanced individuals may be mentally healthier because they experience a sense of harmony in life and optimal psychophysiological conditions which enable them to meet the long-term demands of work and nonwork roles (Greenhaus et al., 2003). This may lead them to be less apprehensive about their abilities to conciliate work and nonwork commitments and also less prone to develop ruminating thoughts about the lack of balance in life that can deplete their physical and mental resources (Rothbard, 2001). Accordingly, we hypothesize that the benefits of WLB will be universal across all country cultures.
H1. WLB will be positively related to job satisfaction across cultures.
H2. WLB will be positively related to life satisfaction across cultures.
H3. WLB will be negatively related to anxiety across cultures.
H4. WLB will be negatively related to depression across cultures.
2.2. Moderating effects of individualism/collectivism
I/C is the cultural dimension that has received the “lion’s share of attention as a predictor of cultural variation” (Brewer & Chen, 2007, p. 133). This dimension is also a powerful moderator of employee cross-cultural studies (Ramamoorthy & Flood, 2002), including work– family studies (Hill et al., 2004; Spector et al., 2004, 2007). I/C reflects whether people view themselves as independent (individualists)
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or are tightly linked to others as part of groups (collectivists) (Triandis, 1995). We follow House, Hanges, Javidan, Dorfman, and Gupta (2004), where in-group collectivism is defined as “the degree to which individuals express pride, loyalty, and cohesiveness in their or- ganizations or families” (p. 30). In essence, in individualistic cultures people tend to prioritize personal interests over common goals, whereas in collectivistic cultures people tend to prioritize common goals, including family ones, over personal needs.
A recent review of cross-cultural work–life research found no studies linking I/C and WLB (Ollier-Malaterre, 2014). However, there is considerable research showing that work–family conflict is less detrimental to individuals in collectivistic than in individualistic cul- tures (Lu, Gilmour, Kao, & Huang, 2006; Lu et al., 2010; Spector et al., 2004, 2007; Yang, Chen, Choi, & Zou, 2000). This can be explained by the presence of different appraisal mechanisms in different cultures (Aycan, 2008). In collectivistic cultures, work is viewed as a way of supporting a family (Redding, 1993; Redding & Wong, 1986) such that people tend to deem work–family conflict as an inev- itable life experience to promote wealth and financial stability for the family (Aryee, Luk, Leung, & Lo, 1999; Spector et al., 2007). In- stead, in individualistic cultures work is generally viewed as an individual achievement that contributes to self-actualization and that is incompatible with family roles (Spector et al., 2004, 2007); therefore people deem work–family conflict to be problematic and a threat to personal health and well-being (Aycan, 2008). Drawing on these assumptions, we expect WLB to be less strongly related to positive outcomes in collectivistic than in individualistic cultures. We reason that achieving balance should be more pivotal for peo- ple in individualistic cultures, as it is considered more essential in individualistic societies to live one’s life to the fullest and to recover from the stress and strains associated with work roles (Spector et al., 2004, 2007). Instead, people in collectivistic cultures tend to per- ceive role imbalance in a less problematic way as they view it as an inevitable cost in promoting family well-being (Aryee et al., 1999). From this we can infer that individuals in individualistic cultures will benefit more from experiencing greater WLB as achieving WLB is more of a focus in their cultures and thus will weigh more towards their satisfaction and mental health. Accordingly,
H5. Individualism/collectivism will moderate the relationship between WLB and individual outcomes, such that:
H5. The positive relationship between WLB and (a) job satisfaction and (b) life satisfaction will be stronger in countries higher in
individualism. H5. The negative relationship between WLB and (c) anxiety and (d) depression will be stronger in countries higher in individualism.
2.3. Moderating effects of gender egalitarianism
GE reflects the presence of “beliefs [in the society] about whether members’ biological sex should determine the roles that they play in their homes, business organizations, and communities” (House et al., 2004, p. 347). Low GE cultures are characterized by be- liefs in the traditional gendered division of labour, which depict men as breadwinners and women as caregivers and homemakers (Wood & Eagly, 2002). Notably, extant research has shown that in high GE cultures there is less adhesion to traditional gender pat- terns and it is considered personally and socially acceptable that both women and men pursue their own life goals and struggle to guarantee the desired level of involvement in both work and non-work roles (Lyness & Judiesch, 2014).
Research on the influence of GE on the work–life interface is still at a very early stage and cross-national research in particular is very scarce (Lyness & Judiesch, 2014; Lyness & Kropf, 2005). Lyness and Judiesch (2008) found a GE moderated relationship, with managers’ self-rating of WLB more positively related to peer’s and supervisor’s advancement potential rating for female managers in high gender egalitarian cultures and for men managers in low gender egalitarian cultures. In this paper, we hypothesize that WLB will be associated with higher job and life satisfaction and lower anxiety and depression for individuals living in high GE cultures than for those living in low GE cultures. We contend that living in cultures where both men’s and women’s work and non-work role involvement is encouraged and considered socially acceptable can amplify the beneficial effects of WLB (Corrigall & Konrad, 2006). Conversely, in low GE cultures we believe that achieving WLB may be less beneficial as traditional gender role prescriptions are pre- vailing and may instil in the population the expectations that men should prioritize work over the family and women should do the opposite. Thus, experiencing WLB might not be perceived as beneficial as it might be in high GE cultures because it is inconsistent with societal expectations about gender division of labour. Accordingly,
H6. Gender egalitarianism will moderate the relationship between WLB and individual outcomes, such that:
H6. The positive relationship between WLB and (a) job satisfaction and (b) life satisfaction will be stronger in countries higher in
GE. H6. The negative relationship between WLB and (c) anxiety and (d) depression will be stronger in countries higher in GE.
Fig. 1 illustrates our general structural model.
3. Method
3.1. Samples and procedures
Data were collected from six countries (New Zealand, Spain, France, Italy, Malaysia and China) and included seven samples. Two separate samples were collected from New Zealand: Maori (indigenous people of New Zealand) and New Zealand European, the
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Fig. 1. General study model: Outcomes of WLB across cultures.
largest population group (equivalent to Caucasians in the US). Table 1 illustrates the descriptive data of the seven samples as well as of the combined sample. The authors personally collected data from four countries including both samples from New Zealand, while two research assistants native of China and Malaysia collected data from these countries. We used our networks to generate the largest number of employees from a broad range of organizations. Then, following basic principles of snowball sampling (Biernacki & Waldford, 1981), we asked recruited participants to recommend participation in the research to their contacts. The necessary require- ment to be included in the sample was being engaged in a full-time job. All surveys where English is not the first language were trans- lated into the native language (e.g., French, Italian, Mandarin) and then back-translated to minimize translation error (Brislin, 1980).
Overall, the combined sample includes 1416 employees of whom 546 come from collectivistic cultures (Maori, Malaysia and China). The average age was 37.6 years, gender was fairly evenly split (55% female) and the majority were married (70%) and parents (61%).
Table 1 Overall study demographics.
Country Demographics Sector
N Age (years) Gender (female) Married Parent Private Public Not-for-profit
New Zealand New Zealand Maori France Italy Spain Malaysia China
366 335 139 238 127 110 101
34.3 38.9 39.2 44.0 39.7 32.1 31.4
55% 63% 62% 43% 50% 48% 63%
70% 67% 80% 69% 78% 75% 47%
51% 69% 74% 60% 66% 63% 43%
56% 22% 74% 63% 62% 4%
45%
40% 70% 22% 35% 36% 96% 38%
4% 8% 4% 2% 2% 0%
17%
Total sample Collectivistic: Average age Gender Married Parents Industry:
1416 Maori, Malaysia and China (n = 546) 37.6 years (SD = 11.5 years) 55% female 70% 61% 46.8% Private 48.5% Public 4.6% Not-for-profit
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3.2. Measures
All samples used the same items, and except where noted, all items were rated on a 5-point scale (1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree). Items were averaged to produce composite indicators, with higher scores indicating higher values of the given mea- sure. All measures achieved adequate reliability within each country sample (all α N .70). We thus combined the seven samples to test our hypotheses (with alphas reported in Table 3).
3.2.1. WLB WLB was measured using a 3-item measure by Haar (2013). A sample item is “I manage to balance the demands of my work and
personal/family life well”. As this measure is still new, we conducted factor analysis (principal components, varimax rotation) for each distinct population and on the combined sample. The three items loaded onto a single factor universally across all seven samples with eigenvalues greater than 1; accounting for sizeable amounts of the variance and achieving adequate reliability in all samples as shown in Table 2.
3.2.2. Job satisfaction Job satisfaction was measured using 3-items by Judge, Bono, Erez, and Locke (2005). A sample question is “Most days I am enthu-
siastic about my work”.
3.2.3. Life satisfaction Life satisfaction was measured using the 5-item scale by Diener, Emmons, Larsen, and Griffin (1985). A sample question is “In most
ways my life is close to ideal”.
3.2.4. Anxiety and depression Anxiety and depression were assessed using 6-items by Axtell et al. (2002). This measure has been shown to have good psychomet-
ric properties (Haar, 2013; Spell & Arnold, 2007). The items were rated on a 5-point scale (1 = never to 5 = all the time). Presented with three adjectives for each measure, respondents were asked to indicate how often each adjective applied to them while they were at work.
3.2.5. Collectivism Collectivism was assessed by coding cultures using GLOBE scores for in-group collectivism (House et al., 2004). This approach is
superior to the typical dichotomous approach often used in the work–family literature (e.g. Spector et al., 2004), as it offers a range of scores that better reflect cultural variations across countries. New Zealand (European) was rated the most individualistic (3.67), and China the most collectivistic (5.8). One issue we came across was that the GLOBE study does not list New Zealand Maori as a sep- arate culture than the rest of the New Zealand population. Indeed, while making up 14% of the population, it is grouped into New Zealand culture as a whole. Since Maori have been found to have a strong collectivistic culture (Brougham & Haar, 2013; Haar, Roche, & Taylor, 2012) and prior research has widely documented that is distinct from the individualistic New Zealand European (Haar & Brougham, 2011; Podsiadlowski & Fox, 2011), we decided to use for this particular ethnic group the same score as in China (5.8). This score aligns with the GLOBE collectivism score for the Southern Asia cluster (Gupta, Surie, Javidan, & Chhokar, 2002), which provides an overall score for the six countries that make up the cluster. As such, we suggest that this provides a useful proxy for a collectivistic culture that aligns well with Maori (Brougham & Haar, 2013). Furthermore, we tested our model without in- cluding the Maori sample and we found no noticeable differences in our results. Therefore, we suggest that including the Maori sam- ple does not distort our overall findings and provides an additional rich new population to explore.
3.2.6. Gender egalitarianism Gender egalitarianism was assessed by coding cultures using the GLOBE scores (House et al., 2004). China was rated the least gen-
der egalitarian (3.68) with Italy the highest (4.88). As with collectivism, this approach is superior to the dichotomous approach but
Table 2 Results of exploratory factor analysis for WLB.
Responses were coded 1 = strongly disagree, 5 = strongly agree Factor loadings for each country
NZ NZ Maori France Italy Spain Malaysia China Combined
1. I am satisfied with my WLB, enjoying both roles .847 .906 .875 .873 .801 .912 .907 .874 2. Nowadays, I seem to enjoy every part of my life equally well .866 .904 .842 .870 .841 .882 .809 .875 3. I manage to balance the demands of my work and .821 .883 .910 .800 .886 .916 .867 .860
personal/family life well
Number of items in measure All analyses confirmed a one factor 3-item measure Eigenvalues 2.141 2.471 2.304 2.159 2.134 2.450 2.230 2.267 Percentage variance 71.4% 80.6% 76.8% 72.0% 71.1% 81.7% 74.3% 75.6% Cronbach’s alpha .80 .88 .85 .80 .80 .89 .83 .84
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similarly, does not have a score for Maori. We followed the same logic outlined above for collectivism and used the same score as in China.
3.2.7. Control variables In line with prior research (Carlson et al., 2009), we included gender (coded as 1 = female and 0 = male) and work–family conflict
as covariates in our analyses. We used 6-items from the scale by Carlson, Kacmar, and Williams (2000) to measure work-to-family conflict (WFC) and family-to-work conflict (FWC). A sample item for WFC is “I have to miss family activities due to the amount of time I must spend on work responsibilities” and a sample item for FWC is “The time I spend on family responsibilities often interfere with my work responsibilities”.
3.3. Measurement models
To confirm the separate dimensions of the various study’s measures in the combined sample, a CFA was run in SEM using AMOS 20.0. We followed Williams, Vandenberg, and Edwards (2009) recommendations regarding the goodness-of-fit measures: (1) the comparative fit index (CFI ≥ .95), (2) the root-mean-square error of approximation (RMSEA ≤ .08), and (3) the standardized root mean residual (SRMR ≤ .10). The hypothesized measurement model included seven distinct factors: WLB, WFC, FWC, job satisfaction, life satisfaction, anxiety and depression, and resulted in a good fit to the data, meeting all minimum requirements: χ2 (209) = 771.0 (p = .000), CFI = .97, RMSEA = 0.05 and SRMR = 0.04. The goodness of the hypothesized model was also confirmed by testing al- ternative models as advocated by Hair, Black, Babin, and Anderson (2010). Overall, the hypothesized measurement model did fit the data better than all the alternative models (results available from authors), which resulted in all alternative models being a significant- ly poorer fit (p b .001). This confirmed WLB to be a distinct construct from WFC and FWC.
Multi-group analysis CFA was conducted to establish measurement invariance between the seven samples (Bou & Satorra, 2010). While SEM model comparisons typically test chi-squared differences, this heavy reliance has been criticized (Schmitt & Kuljanin, 2008). This is because large samples and complex models are highly susceptible to significant changes in the chi-squared value. Cheung and Rensvold (2000) offered a number of alternative goodness-of-fit measures and we focus on the RMSEA because Meade and Kroustalis (2006) show that this measure is not affected by model complexity. Our model showed measurement equivalence as the difference in RMSEA between the seven samples; constrained and unconstrained models were very small at .002 (0.022 versus 0.024), which is below the critical value established by Cheung and Rensvold (2000). As such, this gives us confidence that the com- bined sample has metric invariance and can be analysed as a combined sample.
3.4. Analysis
Hypotheses were tested using SEM in AMOS v.20 to assess the direct (Hypotheses 1–4) and potential moderating effects of I/C (Hypotheses 5) and GE (Hypotheses 6), due to SEM being found to be superior to regression analysis (Cheng, 2001; Iacobucci, Saldanha, & Deng, 2007). Aligned with recommendations by Aiken and West (1991), the interaction terms were z-scored. Because the size of the structural models became overly complex when we included both moderators in the models, we ran two sets of mod- eration models for I/C and GE, respectively. For moderation analyses in SEM, all three z-scored WLB items were multiplied by the sin- gle GLOBE variable (I/C or GE score) to create a new variable in each model: (1) the interaction of WLB × I/C, and (2) the interaction of WLB × GE.
4. Results
4.1. Correlations
Descriptive statistics and intercorrelations for the study variables in the combined sample are shown in Table 3. The four outcome variables were all significantly correlated to each other (all p b .01) in the expected directions. WLB, WFC and
FWC were also correlated (all p b .01). In addition, I/C was significantly correlated to WLB (r = .08, p b .01), anxiety and depression (both r = − .14, p b .01), while GE was significantly correlated to WLB (r = − .09, p b .01), job satisfaction (r = .18, p b .01), anxiety (r = .34, p b .01) and depression (r = .15, p b .01). Furthermore, I/C and GE were significantly correlated to each other (r = − .38, p b .01).
4.2. Structural models
The two moderated SEM models included an additional interaction term to the measurement model: (1) WLB × I/C, and (2) WLB × GE. Consequently, both models were larger than the original measurement model. Despite this, the moderated structural models still resulted in a good fit to the data, meeting all minimum requirements for I/C (model 1): χ2 (307) = 970.4 (p = .000), CFI = 0.96, RMSEA = 0.04 and SRMR = 0.03, and for GE (model 2): χ2 (307) = 1145.1 (p = .000), CFI = 0.96, RMSEA = 0.04 and SRMR = 0.04. Table 4 highlights the significant direct and moderation effects from both models.
Aligned with the recommendations of Grace and Bollen (2005), unstandardized regression coefficients are presented in our tables. Table 4 shows that WLB was significantly related to job satisfaction (path coefficient = .50, p b .001) and life satisfaction (path coefficient = .52, p b .001), supporting Hypotheses 1 and 2. WLB was also significantly linked with anxiety (path coefficient = − .37,
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J.M. Haar et al. / Journal of Vocational Behavior 85 (2014) 361–373
Table 3 Means, standard deviations and correlations of model variables.
N = 1416 (Cronbach’s alpha is reported on diagonal line in italics). ⁎ p b .05. ⁎⁎ p b .01.
p b .001), and depression (path coefficient = − .38, p b .001), supporting Hypotheses 3 and 4. Furthermore, we re-analysed the data separately for all seven samples and these confirmed the effects held in all country samples (see Table 5). Importantly, these effects were found after controlling for WFC and FWC.
Model 1 explored I/C as a moderator, and it was directly and significantly related to both anxiety and depression (both path coef- ficients = − .10, p b .001). Significant interaction effects were found between WLB and I/C towards job satisfaction (path coeffi- cient = − .12, p b .01) and life satisfaction (path coefficient = − .11, p b .01). Model 2 explored GE as a moderator, and it was directly and significantly related to job satisfaction (path coefficient = .08, p b .001), anxiety (path coefficient = .29, p b .001), and depression (path coefficient = .10, p b .001). Significant interaction effects were found between WLB and GE towards job satisfaction (path coefficient = .05, p b .05), life satisfaction (path coefficient = .10, p b .001), and anxiety (path coefficient = − .09, p b .01).
4.3. Interaction plots
To provide a better understanding of the interaction effects, plots are presented in Figs. 2 to 4. The interactions for I/C on job and life satisfaction (Fig. 2) are almost identical and are thus reported together. They show that there
are significant differences between respondent groups, with respondents living in individualistic cultures reporting higher levels of satisfaction (both job and life) at low levels of WLB compared to respondents living in collectivistic cultures. At high levels of WLB, respondents living in individualistic cultures reported stable levels of job and life satisfaction, while respondents living in collectivistic cultures reported significantly less job and life satisfaction, in line with our expectations. Overall, employees living in individualistic cultures reported significantly higher job and life satisfaction as expected, supporting Hypotheses 5a and 5b. Results provided no sup- port for Hypotheses 5c and 5d.
The interactions for GE on job and life satisfaction (Fig. 3) are almost identical and again, we represent them together. They show that there are significant differences between respondent groups, with respondents living in high gender egalitarian cultures reporting higher levels of job and life satisfaction at low levels of WLB compared to respondents living in less GE cultures. At high levels of WLB, all respondents reported higher levels of job and life satisfaction, but respondents in high GE cultures reported signif- icantly higher levels of job satisfaction and life satisfaction than those living in less GE cultures. Overall, employees living in GE cultures reported significantly higher levels of job satisfaction and life satisfaction. Fig. 4 shows there are no significant differences towards anxiety at low levels of WLB between respondent groups at low or high GE. At high levels of WLB, all respondents report lower anxiety
Table 4 Final structural model results (combined data).
Outcomes
Job satisfaction Life satisfaction Anxiety Depression
Model 1: Work–life balance .50⁎⁎⁎ .52⁎⁎⁎ − .37⁎⁎⁎ − .38⁎⁎⁎
Unstandardized regression weights, only main effects are shown. We controlled for gender, work–family conflict and family–work conflict directly on the DVs, and these three control variables covary on WLB. Similarly, all four DVs covary.
⁎ p b 0.05. ⁎⁎ p b .01. ⁎⁎⁎ p b .001.
368 J.M. Haar et al. / Journal of Vocational Behavior 85 (2014) 361–373
Table 5 Direct effects structural model results (individual samples).
Outcomes
New Zealand Maori: New Zealand European France Italy Spain Malaysia China
Job satisfaction Work–life balance Total R2
.26⁎⁎⁎
.13 .67⁎⁎⁎
.42 .58⁎⁎⁎
.22 .57⁎⁎⁎
.72 .48⁎⁎⁎
.15 .55⁎⁎⁎
.41 .59⁎⁎⁎
.40
Life satisfaction Work–life balance Total R2
.21⁎⁎⁎
.12 .66⁎⁎⁎
.39 .65⁎⁎⁎
.58 .73⁎⁎⁎
.40 .49⁎⁎⁎
.36 .34⁎⁎⁎
.32 .66⁎⁎⁎
.47
Anxiety Work–life balance Total R2
− .17⁎⁎⁎
.09 − .40⁎⁎⁎
.26 − .26⁎
.16 − .39⁎⁎⁎
.19 − .34⁎⁎⁎
.24 − .42⁎⁎
.26 − .19†
.12
Depression Work–life balance Total R2
− .25⁎⁎⁎
.11 − .46⁎⁎⁎
.23 − .39⁎⁎
.10 − .37⁎⁎⁎
.21 − .32⁎⁎
.12 − .64⁎⁎
.33 − .34⁎⁎
.15
Unstandardized regression weights, only main effects are shown. We controlled for gender, work–family conflict and family–work conflict directly on the DVs, and these three control variables covary on WLB. Similarly, all four DVs covary.
† p b 0.1. ⁎ p b 0.05. ⁎⁎ p b .01. ⁎⁎⁎ p b .001.
although those respondents in high GE cultures reported a steeper decrease compared to respondents in low GE cultures. These find- ings support Hypotheses 6a, 6b, and 6c.
Overall, the structural model accounted for moderate amounts of variance for all outcomes, and these were identical between the two moderation models for most outcomes: job satisfaction (R2 = .25), life satisfaction (R2 = .33), and depression (R2 = .18). Only towards anxiety were there major differences in variance, with the GE model accounting for far greater variance (R2 = .28) than the I/ C model (R2 = .18).
4.4. Supplementary analyses
Finally, an ANOVA test was conducted to examine the reported levels of WLB between the seven samples. Although the ANOVA test is important to know that at least two groups differ, it does not identify the groups that actually differ. Therefore, we run a mul- tigroup mean comparison between all distinct populations to identify the pattern of differences in our results by using the Fisher’s Least Significant Difference (LSD) and Student–Newman–Keuls tests as post-hoc analyses. The LSD test indicates which group config- urations significantly differ from one another, whereas the Student–Newman–Keuls is a sequential test designed to indicate which groups are significantly different from all the others. It orders mean scores from the lowest to the highest and compares pairs of groups for significant differences. Overall, the F-tests (results available from authors) revealed the presence of a significant difference for WLB across sample between at least two distinct populations. The Student–Newman–Keuls test revealed that the only significant difference existed between the Spanish and Italian samples, with Spanish respondents reported significantly higher levels of WLB (M = 3.47, s.d. = 0.76) than the Italian respondents (M = 3.24, s.d. = 0.79). Notably, the Maori sample (M = 3.56,
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
Jo b
an d
Li fe
S at
is fa
ct io
n
Individualism
Collectivism
Low Work-Life Balance High Work-Life Balance
Fig. 2. Interaction between WLB and I/C on Job and Life satisfaction.
369 J.M. Haar et al. / Journal of Vocational Behavior 85 (2014) 361–373
5
4.5
Low Work-Life Balance High Work-Life Balance
Low Gender
Egalitarianism
High Gender
Egalitarianism
Jo b
an d
L ife
S at
is fa
ct io
n 4
3.5
3
Fig. 3. Interaction between WLB and Gender egalitarianism on Job and Life satisfaction.
s.d. = 0.94) reported significantly higher levels of WLB than the samples from Italy (p b .000), New Zealand (p b .000), France (p b .01), Malaysia (p b .05), but not China (p = .052).
5. Discussion and conclusions
The present study investigated the outcomes of WLB on job satisfaction, life satisfaction, anxiety and depression across seven distinct cultures. More specifically, we explored whether individualism/collectivism (I/C) and gender egalitarianism (GE) moderated the relationship between WLB and these four outcomes. We found strong and consistent support across all cultures for WLB to be as- sociated with outcomes in the expected directions, albeit with some differences related to variations in national culture. Regarding I/C, as expected, we found that high levels of WLB were more positively associated with job and life satisfaction for individuals in individ- ualistic cultures, compared with those in collectivistic cultures. As such, we provide the first or one of the first empirical evidence that the outcomes of WLB can be better understood by including I/C in the analysis. A possible explanation for this result is linked to the importance that WLB has in individualistic cultures where it is a critical component influencing individuals’ subjective assessment of the overall quality of their work and life experiences (Spector et al., 2004, 2007). Furthermore, in individualistic cultures individuals generally have full responsibility for achieving WLB. Therefore, it is possible that, once achieved, WLB may lead to higher feelings of satisfaction in life due to contentment linked to this achievement. Notably, I/C did not significantly moderate the relation- ship between WLB and anxiety or depression. This is an interesting finding that can be understood in light of the broader network and greater level of social/family support usually experienced by individuals in collectivistic cultures that may help them to cope better with life adversities (Powell, Francesco, & Ling, 2009).
Regarding GE, we found that the beneficial effects of WLB on job and life satisfaction were most salient for individuals living in highly gender egalitarian cultures. This suggests that people in high GE cultures tend to be more satisfied with their job and life when experiencing high WLB than people in low GE cultures. This result is remarkable as this is the first study that documents the presence of differentiated outcomes of WLB across cultures that vary in their levels of GE. A possible explanation for this result is that in high GE cultures there is less adhesion to traditional gender role beliefs and therefore both women and men can perceive equal opportunities to pursue personal and professional life goals (House et al., 2004). Importantly, in such cultures there is higher
3
2.5 Low Gender
Egalitarianism
High Gender
Egalitarianism
Low Work-Life Balance High Work-Life Balance
A nx
ie ty
2
1.5
1
Fig. 4. Interaction between WLB and Gender egalitarianism on Anxiety.
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social approval and more tolerance towards the individual’s desire to balance work and non-work roles according to personal life preferences and values without having to sacrifice one domain over the others (Corrigall & Konrad, 2006; Lyness & Kropf, 2005). As a result, individuals may feel more satisfied when experiencing WLB as it is consistent with both personal and societal values and beliefs.
GE also moderated the relationship between WLB and anxiety. The negative relationship between WLB and anxiety was stronger for those living in high GE cultures. This implies that achieving WLB in high GE cultures is likely to enhance the beneficial effects of role balance on mental health. In line with our knowledge that individuals tend to internalize societal gender norms of the country they live in (Eagly & Wood, 2012), this finding indicates that there may be less mental pressure and anxiety for those achieving greater WLB in high GE cultures, indicating the presence of higher acknowledgement of benefits associated with greater role balance. It is also important to note that the low levels of anxiety for people living in high GE cultures may depend on the fact that in such cultures, people are more likely to engage in activities that are functional to experience detachment from work and replenish mental and phys- ical energies (Larson, Verma, & Dworkin, 2001).
5.1. Theoretical contributions
The present study contributes to the emerging WLB literature in several ways. The present study makes significant contributions to the work–life literature. First, we strengthen research on WLB by establishing its relationship with positive outcomes for individuals, which holds after controlling for work–family conflict. This supports the insightfulness of the perception-centred approach character- izing WLB research. It extends prior work conceptualizing WLB as a holistic construct (Greenhaus & Allen, 2011; Kossek et al., 2014) being different than work–family conflict and enrichment (Carlson et al., 2009; Greenhaus & Allen, 2011; Valcour, 2007). We believe that this will help to encourage future research on WLB, and this is important because WLB, as a concept distinct from work–life con- flict and work–life enrichment (Valcour, 2007), has the potential to shed light on the complexity of the work–life interface. Our study also emphasizes the importance to focus on work–life balance rather than on work–family balance, as the former term reflects more truthfully the myriads of personal life situations and role involvement decisions that nowadays characterize the contemporary society (Hall et al., 2013). This is consistent with major trends in work–life research emphasizing WLB to be a broad issue relevant for all working people (Haar, 2013; Kossek et al., 2014).
Second, this is one of the first studies that explores the outcomes of WLB across several countries and considers the influence of two distinct cultural dimensions, namely individualism/collectivism and gender egalitarianism. This is important as we compare countries that present noticeable differences with regard to their values, assumptions, norms, and belief systems about the gender roles. Thus, our paper enriches comparative work–life research at the individual level and contributes to bridge the macro–micro gap between country-level contexts and individual-level variables (Bamberger, 2008; Ollier-Malaterre et al., 2013). Moreover, while a couple of studies have explored the relationship between WLB and GE (e.g., Lyness & Judiesch, 2014), this is the first study, to our knowledge, that considers the moderating role of I/C on the positive effects generated by WLB. This is noteworthy given that I/C represents one of the most studied dimension in cross-cultural research (Brewer & Chen, 2007) and is an important boundary con- dition of our model explaining why people living in different countries perceive the benefits of WLB to greater or lesser extent. Fol- lowing recent recommendations in cross-cultural research (e.g., Taras, Rowney, & Steel, 2009), we used GLOBE scores for I/C and GE as these are reliable and objective instruments for quantifying cultural differences (House et al., 2004).
Third, we tested WLB effects in some settings of growing interest in the literature (e.g. Malaysia and China) and in some understudied settings (e.g. New Zealand European and Maori). Thus, this article contributes to establish the generalizability of work–life concepts and measures developed in Western countries to other regions of the world (Kossek & Ollier-Malaterre, 2013; Ollier-Malaterre et al., 2013; Powell et al., 2009). This is important given that WLB has considerable implications for people all around the world (Hill et al., 2004; Lyness & Judiesch, 2014). Our finding that the direct effects of WLB hold across all of the study’s samples aligns with research pointing out the universal benefit of the work–life interface (Hill et al., 2004; Poelmans et al., 2003; Shaffer, Joplin, & Hsu, 2011; Spector et al., 2004, 2007). However, our finding that two dimensions of national culture (I/C and GE) moderate the re- lationships between WLB and individual outcomes highlights the need to include cultural dimensions in research designs.
5.2. Practical implications
Our findings imply that achieving WLB may hold the key to greater job and life satisfaction, and diminished mental health issues, and this may hold in many countries. This has important implications for organizations that should make sure to assess their employees’ WLB in addition to measuring their work–life conflict. Organizations should invest in promoting WLB by implementing work–life policies, such as flexible working hours, and by embracing a supportive work culture that encourages em- ployees to use the work–life policies that are available in the organization (Allen, 2001; Eaton, 2003; Hammer, Kossek, Anger, Bodner, & Zimmerman, 2011). In addition, encouraging employees to recognize and celebrate their success in balancing roles (when achieved) and to elongate the time frame upon which they to gauge their work–life balance (Marsh, 2010) is also critical to foster greater benefits through understanding the potential changing nature of WLB. This may be particularly important in individu- alistic cultures and in high gender egalitarian cultures where work–life balance seems to be especially beneficial. Moreover, this can also prevent – especially in individualistic cultures – employees become frustrated when experiencing temporary situations of role imbalance.
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5.3. Limitations, future research and conclusions
While the present study encompasses seven distinct samples across six countries, a limitation is the cross-sectional, self-report na- ture of the data, although this approach is common in other work–family cross-cultural studies (Greenhaus & Allen, 2011; Spector et al., 2007). To alleviate this limitation we conducted higher order statistical approaches (i.e., CFA) using SEM to confirm the distinct nature of our measures. Furthermore, Kenny (2008) suggests that SEM does somewhat mitigate the potential bias related to the presence of common method variance. Similarly, testing for moderation effects also reduces the chances for common method variance (Evans, 1985). In addition, as advocated by Haar (2013), a self-report approach is needed to accurately tap the perception-centred na- ture of WLB. While additional secondary source data (e.g., supervisor, partner) would be preferable, it was prohibitively difficult to gain such data across a wide range of countries and individuals. As such, the data collected here are similar to that undertaken in other cross-cultural studies, but the CFA and structural analysis run in our study provide some unique statistical contributions, and the moderation analyses also help offset such limitations.
The present study has implications for future studies, especially cross-cultural studies in the work–life research areas. We hope that it will encourage research based on the concept of WLB, which is an important concept shedding light in job and life satisfaction as well as mental health, and which is more generalizable across cultures than what its Western origin presumed. While our study used robust scores for I/C and GE, it has been noted that individual-level allocentrism and idiocentrism may make some individuals more sensitive to cultural contexts than others (Triandis, Leung, Villareal, & Clack, 1985; Wang, Lawler, Walumbwa, & Shi, 2004). Therefore future studies should strive to measure both culture-level and individual-level of I/C and GE. Furthermore, there is to date no research investigating the role that other cultural dimensions may play in the relationship between WLB and outcomes. In particular, we encourage researchers to include in future studies the four other dimensions identified in a recent review as extensively impacting work–life conflict, enrichment and balance (Ollier-Malaterre, 2014): i.e. power distance, uncertainty avoidance, humane orientation (House et al., 2004) and specificity/diffusion (Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, 1998). This area of research is almost void and opens avenues for many fruitful studies.
In conclusion, the present study emphasizes the crucial role that WLB plays in promoting greater job and life satisfaction and better mental health across employees in different cultures. It also points out that culture, in this study I/C and GE, moderates these relation- ships. Taken together, the findings of this study offer a fresh and nuanced picture on similarities and differences across cultures, which we hope will encourage future studies in the growing field of comparative work–life research.
Acknowledgments
We thank Tammy Allen and other conference attendees for their helpful feedback on an earlier version of this paper presented at the International Center for Work and Family 2013 conference. We are also grateful to the anonymous reviewers who gave us insight- ful suggestions.
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