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Brown V. Board became the law of the land in 1954

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The response should be at least three well-developed paragraphs. Please include at least one citation from an outside reading to support your analysis. Do not forget to use APA 7 formatting for citations.  

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Question 1

In 1896, the U.S. Supreme Court determined that racial segregation laws were constitutional so long as the segregated facilities were equal in quality – a doctrine that became known as “separate but equal.” Thurgood Marshall chose to go after the root of the evil – the segregation itself – and Brown V. Board became the law of the land in 1954 determining that separate but equal has no place with “separate educational facilities being inherently unequal.”

Fast forward 64 years. Today, our schools look like Brown v Board of Education never happened. In addition, zero tolerance policies have added to the burdens already placed on certain bodies, leading to what is now being referred to as the “cradle to prison pipeline.”  

Desegregation had provided the ONLY major results regarding the pernicious achievement gap in our nation’s history. During the 1980s – the achievement gap between white students and Black students was cut in HALF.  Once equal opportunity was offered across the board – to better classes, better teachers, better facilities – schools began to produce the results that have not been replicated before or since. “Black Americans who attended schools integrated by court order were more likely to graduate, go on to college, and earn a degree than Black Americans who attended segregated schools. They made more money – five years of integrated schooling increased the earnings of Black adults by 15 percent” (Segregation Now). It was also found that integration improved the lot of all Americans – white students did just as well in integrated schools – but after being a part of an integrated environment – whites were more likely to live in integrated neighborhoods and to send their own children to racially diverse schools.  

What do these statements mean to you – as a student, as a future educator, as a current educator, as a parent or future parent? What does it imply for the building of classroom communities and the ways we engage in curriculum and educational planning? If we are truly better when we learn together – when our classrooms reflect the beautiful diversity that is America – then what has happened to divide us so? Who is to blame and who can change it? How can we change it within our classroom communities?

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DESCRIBING WATER UTILITY PERFORMANCE: THE CASE OF BROWN COUNTY

BACKGROUND

You are a newly appointed county manager of Brown County, which is large suburban jurisdiction covering 1500 square miles. Reviewing the county budget by department you notice that infrastructure costs for water utilities comprises a large percentage of the public works department’s annual budget. 

The Division of Public Works is the largest department in Brown County and the water utilities department in the Division of Public Works serves approximately 41,952 water customers.  The utilities department currently operates 482 miles of water main with six water pump stations. The department also oversees 12 water storage facilities with a combined capacity of 67 million gallons.

You decide to embark on a performance measurement exercise of water utilities to help public works set a course to monitor operating efficiency and to justify potential capital expenses. 

PERFORMANCE MEASUREMENT: WHAT ARE WE MEASURING?  

As a first step toward performance assessment, you decide to examine the operating ratio of the water utility. This measure represents the total costs for operation and maintenance of the water distribution system as provided by the accounting division of Public Works divided by the total revenues generated from water purchased by the public from the county utility department. Therefore, costs are expressed as a percent of total revenue. Hence an operating ratio of .20, or 20% (move the decimal two places to the right) indicates that operating and maintenance costs comprise 20% of operating revenue. A higher operating cost percentage indicates that operating expenses are increasing relative to revenue. Conversely, if the operating ratio is decreasing, expenses are decreasing, or revenue is increasing, or some combination of both.

WHAT IS “GOOD” PERFORMANCE?

To establish if a performance measure is “good” it needs to be compared to a standard or best practice results established by an independent professional association within specific industries. In the case of water utilities, the American Water Works Association (AWWA) establishes bench marking guidelines. AWWA, using data gathered from suburban counties throughout the U.S. similar to Brown County, established the top quartile for operating ratio at 45%. According the AWWA, this benchmark indicates financial efficiency of water operations. 

ASSESS HOW THE WATER UTILITY IS DOING 

The performance target goal for Brown County is .45 or 45%. Review the descriptive analysis of the operating ratios for FY 2019 and FY 2020.  Describe the trends and assess the utility’s performance

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Chemistry: the central science by brown: Energy in the 21st Century

Energy in the 21st Century
Overview
Chapter 5 in our text is all about thermochemistry.
•    We see how reactants combine to produce energy. When we combust fossil fuels we are using the exothermic combustion reaction to get the energy we want or need.
•    We use fossil fuels (oil, gas, coal) for many things: power for transportation, electricity production, home and industrial heating. Often overlooked is the fact that these “fuels” also provide the basic raw materials for medicines and all of the polymer products (clothing, plastics, etc.) that we use everyday. Nearly everything you come in contact with every day has some link to the petroleum industry. Here is a partial list of items:A partial list of products made from Petroleum (6000 items)(link opens in new window).
The sources for and uses of energy are some of the most pressing and influential questions to be answered by industry and science today. The search for alternative fuels is a major part of this endeavor. Here is an interesting interview with Bill Gates on this topic.
Q&A with Bill Gates on the World’s Energy Crisis (link opens in a new window).
Instructions
Here are some questions to consider in your discussion of the topic of Energy use in the 21st century:
•    Is ethanol a good alternative to petroleum fuels? And is using corn to produce ethanol the right method?
•    Find a reference that discusses an alternative fuel other than ethanol. Provide some detail about what the article says about the fuel and include your article as a reference.
•    Where do you think we will be in 50 years on this issue?

Note:  I am using Chemistry: the central science  by brown

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Energy in the 21st Century

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Energy in the 21st Century

            Fossil fuels such as coal, oil and gas are credited for their role in the development since industrial era. They find application in almost all parts of the industry including in fueling of machines, generation of electricity, manufacture of industrial products such as medicines and for heating and cooking in our homes (Brown, 2015). However, these fuels pose several dangers including pollution and the fact that their use is unsustainable since they are not renewable sources. Attempts to find alternative sustainable sources of energy have seen the manufacture of electric cars and increased use of wind energy. However, there is still huge dependence on fossil fuels, which has led scientists to devise alternative sources of energy in biofuel.

            One of the alternative sources of energy that has been developed to replace fossil oils is ethanol. According to (Kotz, Treichel & Townsend, 2012) ethanol is manufactured through a fermentation process that involves renewable sources such as sugarcane and corn. Though it employs renewable sources in manufacture of biofuel, I do not think ethanol is a good alternative to fuels. The manufacture of ethanol would consume a substantial mass of land in production of the required quantity of sugarcane or corn. This would lead to overexploitation of land and possibility of crisis that would result in replacement of arable land for the purpose of production of fuel. For example, use of corn would not be right since corn is a source of food for animals and humans in other parts of the world. Using corn in manufacture of ethanol would not be sustainable and would become a threat to food security.             There is a continuing attempt to develop sustainable

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Chemistry: the central science by Brown

Overview
Chapter 2 of our text provides you with the atomic theory of matter and begins to explore the modern structure of the atom. Our knowledge of the atom was built over many years of study. In this discussion we explore, more about hypotheses, theories, truth.
Can a theory be proven “true?” For scientists, the word theory holds more power than its meaning in everyday vernacular. Often times today the words “theory” and “opinion” are treated as virtual synonyms, with the underlying idea that neither need be substantiated outside of the whim of the individual holding the particular point of view. However, when used in the scientific community, the term “theory” does in fact connote an idea that has already undergone the scrutiny and refining process of the scientific method, and as such, had been thoroughly vetted by the scientific community. A scientific “theory” therefore is the product of countless experiments and often holds predictive power for further studies.
For example, John Dalton proposed the atomic theory that simply states, “all matter is composed of atoms.” This is a fundamental theory in chemistry and a starting place for all chemical experimentation. Yet, we still must ask, is this theory free from bias? Is it fundamentally a statement of truth?
At the heart of these questions is an even deeper one. How should we view science? Traditionally, science has been seen as a progression of thought. Little by little, another piece of the puzzle fits and supports the reigning theory of the day. As scientists observe the world around them, they are able to gradually refine their theories and science progresses. In fact, theories may become so fine-tuned that they are able to represent an accurate model of nature. We will call this the incremental view.
A view that is fairly new to the scientific world was popularized in a book written in 1964 by Thomas Kuhn entitled, The Structure of Scientific Revolution. This view challenged the incremental view by stating that science spends most of it time doing what Kuhn called “normal science.” This is the day-to-day laboratory work were scientists fit their discoveries into the commonly held theory of the time. However, over time, more and more exceptions to the theory emerge. At some point, the “truth” of the theory is questioned. This results in a scientific revolution, a paradigm shift, and a new reigning theory replaces the old. This new theory does not simply improve upon the previous one held, but often completely overhauls the perspective of the scientific community.
However, over time, more and more exceptions to the theory emerge. At some point, the “truth” of the theory is questioned. This results in a scientific revolution, a paradigm shift, and a new reigning theory replaces the old. This new theory does not simply improve upon the previous one held, but often completely overhauls the perspective of the scientific community.
Instructions
For your initial thread, please answer the following questions and explain your reasoning:

  1. Give an example of a scientific development that illustrates Kuhn’s idea of scientific revolutions and explain how it represents this idea.
  2. Give an example of the incremental view of scientific development and explain how it represents this idea.
  3. Do you think scientific development follows Kuhn’s view or the incremental view? Justify your answer.
  4. Can scientific knowledge be considered true? As you answer this question, discuss hypotheses and theories and how they fit into scientific knowledge.

*Note: I am using Chemistry: the central science by Brown

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Hypotheses, Theories, and Truth

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Hypotheses, Theories, and Truth

Example of Scientific Development

            The development in science proceeds in two steps as outlined by Thomas Kuhn in his work on scientific revolution. According to (Brown, 2015) Kuhn’s scientific revolution proceeds in a numbers of steps that begin from what he termed “normal science” and ends in paradigm shift, where there is development of new approaches since the prior ones are considered inadequate or for solving current problems. The paradigm shift leads to development of new paradigms which are considered mode of instruction until new “crisis” arises that demands new paradigm. An example of a science revolution is the atomic theory.

            In its early conception, Dalton provided an atomic theory that was considered revolutionary in the study of chemistry. The theory provided a remarkable way in which chemical reactions were viewed. In his theory, he proposed that elements were composed of tiny particles called atoms and that these atoms of same elements were identical and are of equal mass (Raymond, 2009). Moreover, Dalton proposed that atoms could not be divided, created or destroyed and that they combined in whole numbers. His theory was later challenged with the discovery of isotopes and chemical fusion and fission.

            Dalton’s atomic theory represents Kuhn idea of scientific revolution because, the theory was initially accepted as a “normal science” and those who existed during his era employed his ideas. However, there came a shift when his ideas were challenged with the discovery of similar elements that had different masses and the possibility of breaking or combining atoms through fission and fusion. All the scientific developments created a new “paradigm shift” that altered the way atoms were viewed, leading to new ideas that replaced those proposed by Dalton.

Example of Incremental View of Scientific Development

            In contrast to scientific revolutions, incremental view of scientific development occurs when existing theories are modified to make them more accurate. This occurs as scientists make observations and refine existing theoretical concepts adding new knowledge that makes them to have an accurate representation of the concept under study. An example of an incremental view of scientific development is the development of the periodic table of elements.  The periodic table represents and arrangement of all known elements based on their properties (Joesten, Castellion & Hogg, 2007). According to the authors, Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev was the first scientist to attempt arrange of elements according to their atomic weights. This was based on 68 elements that had been discovered. However, new elements have continued to be discovered and an arrangement based on their properties has been developed over time. The development of periodic table represents incremental view of scientific development since it has led to refinement of classification of elements a……………………………………………………………………………………………………

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Brown vs. Board of Education Case Analysis Paper – Due January 11, 2020

Brown vs. Board of Education Case Analysis Paper – Due January 11, 2020

There is a final paper requirement in this course, which you will satisfy by performing the case analysis assignment explained below.

The paper is due at any time before the end of Session V – 11:59 p.m. on January 11, 2020 – and is worth 20% of your grade.

I set forth the assignment below:

One very important part of Chapter 1 is the discussion of stare decisis and precedent, particularly in the context of some historic constitutional law case decisions.  I have attached a copy of the United States Supreme Court’s groundbreaking decision in Brown v. Bd. of Education, 347 U.S. 483 (1954).  Please read this decision and, in two to three pages: (1) summarize the finding of the Court and (2) explain both how stare decisis was applied and was not applied by the Court in its decision.  

Please note that the linked/attached opinion was written by Supreme Court Chief Justice Warren at a time when the use of some language that is now considered offensive and racist was deemed acceptable by some.  I just want you to note that I did not write the attached/linked opinion, nor do I condone the use of such terminology, it is the language of Chief Justice Warren of the Supreme Court in 1954.  Obviously, if you have a problem with performing an assignment on this judicial opinion, let me know and I will find another case opinion for you.