What is Knowledge?
Dr. Lund Notes for The Norton Introduction to Philosophy, with supplements from Sober’s Core Questions in Philosophy, Ch. 12
Theory of Knowledge
Epistemology
-ology (study of) + episteme -propositional knowledge
(vs. techne)
Assumption: Most of our beliefs aren’t knowledge.
The sum total of our beliefs about the world range from our most important values to our most basic thoughts about what is going on in the world around us.
Knowledge, Belief, Fact
The term “knowledge” is a description that applies to statements such as “It is Monday.”
Beliefs based upon these statements are the “model” of the world that we build for ourselves.
The term knowledge describes a relationship that must apply between the world inside someone’s mind (what they believe to be true) and the facts of the matter-the world outside of (or independent from) that person’s mind.
It describes a match between how things are, and how they seem to be.
Commonsense and Counterintuitive
Sometimes our background understanding of other facts about the world along with good judgment helps us to determine whether a belief is likely to be correct.
But common sense is fallible. Many things that seem right are incorrect. In other words, a lot of knowledge is counterintuitive.
Ex. If you drop food, pick it up, wash it, and eat it, is it safe? Does it depend upon whether you drop it in the sink or the toilet? The answer may surprise you!
In 2008, Nicholas Evans, the author of The Horse Whisperer, picked some wild mushrooms, cooked them, and served them to his family. They nearly died, as the mushrooms were deadly webcaps, but Evans did not know this. This shows that sometimes a lack of knowledge can have serious–even fatal–consequences. Knowledge is valuable.
Story about lacking knowledge
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Concepts in Question
Timmy has the ability to ride a bike
Luis is acquainted with Reinaldo
Dana correctly believes that the Rocky Mountains are in North America
What each of these statements share in common is that they can be rewritten with the word “know”
Kinds of Knowledge
Propositional knowledge: knowledge that a proposition is true or false
The main subject matter of epistemology
Personal/acquaintance knowledge: knowledge that is held on the basis of being acquainted with the subject
Procedural knowledge: knowledge concerning how to perform activities
© 2018 W. W. Norton & Co., Inc.
How do we recognize Propositional Knowledge?
The first two components of knowledge are belief and truth.
If a person S knows that P is true, it must be true that (i) P is true, and (ii) S believes P.
Conditions (i) and (ii) are thus necessary conditions for S to know that P is true.
However, (i) and (ii) are not sufficient conditions for knowledge.
© 2018 W. W. Norton & Co., Inc.
Plato’s View in the Meno
As Plato noted, knowledge is not merely “correct opinion.”
In addition to having a true belief that P is true, S’s belief that P (iii) is true must be justified.
The received view thus used to be that knowledge was justified true belief.
Theories about what Knowledge is:
Knowledge is justified true belief.
Having a justified true belief that S is true is not sufficient for knowing that S is true.
There is a fourth component of knowledge, in addition to justified true belief.
Can knowledge can be broken down into components?
© 2018 W. W. Norton & Co., Inc.
Requirements for a Good Definition
Whatever concept we’re defining, we should expect a definition that is neither too broad nor too narrow.
too broad–just right–too narrow
To build a“just right” definition, we need to supply necessary and sufficient conditions.
What is a Necessary Condition?
These are features that if they are NOT met by an instance or individual tell us that the instance is not even a contender to fulfill the concept. (Sober, 149)
Necessary conditions rule things out
Examples of necessary conditions
Job description: must be bilingual
Mammal: must be an animal
Chair: must be furniture
Person you would date: must be alive, not a close relative, etc.
What is a Sufficient Condition?
For a given instance or individual, sufficient conditions are enough for us to be certain that the instance fulfills the concept.
Sufficient Conditions rule things in
Examples of Sufficient Conditions
New hire: candidate selected by the hiring manager
Mammal: nurses its young
Chair: is intended for sitting
Potential date: any person you would date for sure
President of the United States: Elected by the electoral college and sworn in by the Chief Justice of the US Supreme Court
Readings: Plato
© 2018 W. W. Norton & Co., Inc.
17
The participants in this dialogue attempt to define virtue.
In this dialogue, Socrates demonstrates the theory that knowledge consists of recollection.
He also distinguishes between knowledge and true belief.
JTB Definition of Knowledge
For any individual S and any proposition p, S knows that p if and only if (iff)
S believes that p
P is true
S is justified in believing that p
Necessary Conditions for a Statement to be Knowledge
Almost everyone who deals with the question of knowledge agrees that the JTB theory gets one important thing right. For a statement to be a contender for knowledge it must be a statement that someone believes and it must turn out to be true.
A statement’s truth and someone believing it are necessary conditions for it to be knowledge.
Sufficient Conditions for a Statement to be Knowledge
The question is whether knowing that a given statement is a belief held by someone, is true, and is justified is sufficient to conclude that the statement is in fact knowledge.
If we can find even one case of a belief that fits these criteria but should NOT be called knowledge, then the definition is too broad.
What is a Counterexample?
A counterexample is an example that goes against a generalization
In the case of the JTB, any statement that fits the definition but isn’t knowledge would be a counterexample.
Let’s look at the Lottery counterexample
Sober’s Lottery Example
A fair lottery
1000 tickets sold-you buy one (Justification)
You form the belief “I won’t win” (Belief)
When the drawing happens, you don’t win (True)
Would you throw out your ticket BEFORE the drawing happens?
Do Any Perfectly Justified Statements Exist?
Maybe this is the best description of what knowledge would be, but there is nothing that can fit this definition.
The theory that no knowledge exists is called Philosophical Skepticism
An Argument for Philosophical Skepticism
For any statement
P1: If S knows that p, then it isn’t possible that S is mistaken in believing that p.
P2: It is possible that S is mistaken in believing that p.
________________________
S doesn’t know that p.
Is Skepticism Self-Refuting?
I KNOW that no-one knows anything.
Is the statement above an accurate depiction of the skeptics’ position?
If so, it seems self-refuting, like these statements are.
No hablo Español.
I never make a misstake.
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