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Outcomes of work–life balance on job satisfaction, life satisfaction and mental health:

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Journal of Vocational Behavior 85 (2014) 361–373

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Journal of Vocational Behavior

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Outcomes of work–life balance on job satisfaction, life satisfaction and mental health: A study across seven cultures

Jarrod M. Haar a,1, Marcello Russo b,⁎,1, Albert Suñe c, Ariane Ollier-Malaterre d

a School of Management, Massey University, Private Bag 102904, North Shore City, New Zealand b Department of Management, KEDGE Business School, 680 Cours de la Liberation, 33405 Talence cedex, Bordeaux, France Department of Management, Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, Etseiat, C. Colom 11, 08222 Terrassa, Barcelona, Spain

d Organisation and Human Resources Department, École des Sciences de la Gestion, Université du Québec A Montréal, 315, rue Sainte-Catherine Est, local R-3490, Montréal, Québec H2X 3X2, Canada

a r t i c l e i n f o

⁎ Corresponding author. E-mail addresses: j.haar@massey.ac.nz (J.M. Haar), m

(A. Ollier-Malaterre). Denotes shared first authorship.

a b s t r a c t

Article history: Received 22 May 2014 Available online 7 September 2014

This study investigates the effects of work–life balance (WLB) on several individual outcomes across cultures. Using a sample of 1416 employees from seven distinct populations – Malaysian, Chinese, New Zealand Maori, New Zealand European, Spanish, French, and Italian – SEM analysis showed that WLB was positively related to job and life satisfaction and negatively related to anx- iety and depression across the seven cultures. Individualism/collectivism and gender egalitarian- ism moderated these relationships. High levels of WLB were more positively associated with job and life satisfaction for individuals in individualistic cultures, compared with individuals in collec- tivistic cultures. High levels of WLB were more positively associated with job and life satisfaction and more negatively associated with anxiety for individuals in gender egalitarian cultures. Overall, we find strong support for WLB being beneficial for employees from various cultures and for cul- ture as a moderator of these relationships.

Keywords: Work–life balance Collectivism Gender egalitarianism Cross-cultural Job satisfaction Well-being

1. Introduction

Work–life balance (WLB) is a central concern in everyday discourses (Greenhaus & Allen, 2011; Greenhaus, Collins, & Shaw, 2003; Guest, 2002; Kossek, Valcour, & Lirio, 2014; Maertz & Boyar, 2011). However, despite its popularity, WLB remains one of the least stud- ied concepts in work–life research (Greenhaus & Allen, 2011). Valcour (2007) noted that it is “a concept whose popular usage has outplaced its theoretical development” (p. 1513). A reason for this is the field’s struggle to agree on a common definition of WLB (Greenhaus & Allen, 2011). Another reason is that research on the positive individual outcomes of WLB has been relatively slow to accumulate (Greenhaus & Allen, 2011; Maertz & Boyar, 2011). In addition, most of the current studies focus on work–family balance, without considering individuals’ broader lives including community, leisure, church, sport and other activities (Hall, Kossek, Briscoe, Pichler, & Lee, 2013). In this study we work with a relatively consensual definition of WLB as being an individual’s assessment of how well her or his multiple life roles are balanced (e.g. Greenhaus & Allen, 2011; Haar, 2013; Kossek et al., 2014). We aim to contribute to WLB research at solidifying the concept of WLB by examining its relationship with four important individual outcomes: job satisfac- tion, life satisfaction, anxiety, and depression.

Furthermore, we know very little about the impact of cultures on the relationship between WLB and individual outcomes. A recent review of cross-national work–life research has identified only two cross-cultural studies focusing on WLB compared with 29 focusing

arcello.russo@kedgebs.com (M. Russo), albert.sune@upc.edu (A. Suñe), ollier.ariane@uqam.ca

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362 J.M. Haar et al. / Journal of Vocational Behavior 85 (2014) 361–373

on conflict and nine on enrichment; the only cultural dimension examined in these studies was gender egalitarianism (Ollier- Malaterre, 2014). This is a clear shortcoming of current research given that numerous calls have been issued to broaden the scope and ambition of work–life research by conducting cross-national studies that consider the impact of multiple cultural dimensions (Greenhaus & Allen, 2011; Kossek, Baltes, & Matthews, 2011; Ollier-Malaterre, Valcour, den Dulk, & Kossek, 2013; Poelmans, 2005). In this paper we address this gap by testing whether the relationships between WLB, job satisfaction, life satisfaction, anxiety, and de- pression are moderated by two important cultural dimensions: (1) individualism/collectivism (I/C) and (2) gender egalitarianism (GE). Based on a sample of 1416 employees from seven distinct cultures – Malaysian, Chinese, New Zealand Maori, New Zealand European, Spanish, French, and Italian, we find strong support for direct effects of WLB across all of the study’s samples. We also find moderating effects of I/C and GE on these relationships.

Our study makes three important contributions to the literature. First, we contribute to establish WLB as a solid construct that sheds light on major individual outcomes, thereby encouraging future research on WLB as a way to better understand a complex work–life interface, and encouraging practitioners to assess their employees’ WLB as part of their HR efforts. Second, our study is unique in the burgeoning body of cross-cultural research on the work–life interface (for a review, see Ollier-Malaterre, 2014) since it is the first, to our knowledge, to focus on WLB rather than work–family conflict or work–family enrichment and to have collected evidence that two dimensions of national culture, i.e. I/C and GE, moderate the relationships between WLB and individual outcomes. The finding that WLB has beneficial outcomes for individuals across seven distinct cultures lends further support to the construct of WLB. Third, our study provides evidence that work–life concepts that originated in Western cultures are generalizable beyond these cultures — we do so by including cultures of growing interest in the literature (e.g. Malaysia and China) as well as understudied cul- tures (e.g. New Zealand European and Maori).

2. Theoretical background and hypotheses

2.1. Work–life balance

Consistent with recent theoretical advancements (e.g. Frone, 2003; Greenhaus & Allen, 2011; Haar, 2013; Kossek et al., 2014), we conceptualize WLB as an individual’s perceptions of how well his or her life roles are balanced. This conceptualization of individuals subjectively gauging balance between the work and the rest of their life (Guest, 2002) is in contrast with prevailing views that considered balance to be equivalent to low role conflict (Duxbury & Higgins, 2001), to high role enrichment (Frone, 2003) or to an equal division of time and attention amongst the several roles that compose an individual’s life system (Marks & MacDermid, 1996). Our definition is grounded in the perception-centred approach that considers work–life balance to be a holistic concept, unique for each person and that depends upon his or her life values, priorities and goals (Kossek et al., 2014).

With a few exceptions (see Hill, Yang, Hawkins, & Ferris, 2004; Lyness & Judiesch, 2014), cross-national research has mostly neglected work–life balance. However, there is general consensus amongst scholars that work–life balance is highly valued by nearly all employees (Kossek et al., 2014) and it has important implications on people’s well-being and work productivity all over the world (Lyness & Judiesch, 2014). Interestingly, research conducted by IBM has shown that people’s nationality does not translate in differences in the expressed desire for work–life balance (Hill et al., 2004). Regarding the effects of WLB, extant research shows that people who perceive balance between their work and life roles tend to be more satisfied of their life and report better physical and mental health (Brough et al., 2014; Carlson, Grzywacz, & Zivnuska, 2009; Ferguson, Carlson, Zivnuska, & Whitten, 2012; Greenhaus et al., 2003; Haar, 2013; Lunau, Bambra, Eikemo, Van der Wel, & Dragano, 2014). Building on these premises, in this article we hypothesize, for two reasons, that WLB will be positively related to job and life satisfaction and negatively related to mental health universally for all employees.

First, we believe that individuals who experience WLB may be more satisfied of their job and life “because they are participating in role activities that are salient to them” (Greenhaus et al., 2003; p. 515). Second, we believe that balanced individuals may be mentally healthier because they experience a sense of harmony in life and optimal psychophysiological conditions which enable them to meet the long-term demands of work and nonwork roles (Greenhaus et al., 2003). This may lead them to be less apprehensive about their abilities to conciliate work and nonwork commitments and also less prone to develop ruminating thoughts about the lack of balance in life that can deplete their physical and mental resources (Rothbard, 2001). Accordingly, we hypothesize that the benefits of WLB will be universal across all country cultures.

H1. WLB will be positively related to job satisfaction across cultures.

H2. WLB will be positively related to life satisfaction across cultures.

H3. WLB will be negatively related to anxiety across cultures.

H4. WLB will be negatively related to depression across cultures.

2.2. Moderating effects of individualism/collectivism

I/C is the cultural dimension that has received the “lion’s share of attention as a predictor of cultural variation” (Brewer & Chen, 2007, p. 133). This dimension is also a powerful moderator of employee cross-cultural studies (Ramamoorthy & Flood, 2002), including work– family studies (Hill et al., 2004; Spector et al., 2004, 2007). I/C reflects whether people view themselves as independent (individualists)

363 J.M. Haar et al. / Journal of Vocational Behavior 85 (2014) 361–373

or are tightly linked to others as part of groups (collectivists) (Triandis, 1995). We follow House, Hanges, Javidan, Dorfman, and Gupta (2004), where in-group collectivism is defined as “the degree to which individuals express pride, loyalty, and cohesiveness in their or- ganizations or families” (p. 30). In essence, in individualistic cultures people tend to prioritize personal interests over common goals, whereas in collectivistic cultures people tend to prioritize common goals, including family ones, over personal needs.

A recent review of cross-cultural work–life research found no studies linking I/C and WLB (Ollier-Malaterre, 2014). However, there is considerable research showing that work–family conflict is less detrimental to individuals in collectivistic than in individualistic cul- tures (Lu, Gilmour, Kao, & Huang, 2006; Lu et al., 2010; Spector et al., 2004, 2007; Yang, Chen, Choi, & Zou, 2000). This can be explained by the presence of different appraisal mechanisms in different cultures (Aycan, 2008). In collectivistic cultures, work is viewed as a way of supporting a family (Redding, 1993; Redding & Wong, 1986) such that people tend to deem work–family conflict as an inev- itable life experience to promote wealth and financial stability for the family (Aryee, Luk, Leung, & Lo, 1999; Spector et al., 2007). In- stead, in individualistic cultures work is generally viewed as an individual achievement that contributes to self-actualization and that is incompatible with family roles (Spector et al., 2004, 2007); therefore people deem work–family conflict to be problematic and a threat to personal health and well-being (Aycan, 2008). Drawing on these assumptions, we expect WLB to be less strongly related to positive outcomes in collectivistic than in individualistic cultures. We reason that achieving balance should be more pivotal for peo- ple in individualistic cultures, as it is considered more essential in individualistic societies to live one’s life to the fullest and to recover from the stress and strains associated with work roles (Spector et al., 2004, 2007). Instead, people in collectivistic cultures tend to per- ceive role imbalance in a less problematic way as they view it as an inevitable cost in promoting family well-being (Aryee et al., 1999). From this we can infer that individuals in individualistic cultures will benefit more from experiencing greater WLB as achieving WLB is more of a focus in their cultures and thus will weigh more towards their satisfaction and mental health. Accordingly,

H5. Individualism/collectivism will moderate the relationship between WLB and individual outcomes, such that:

H5. The positive relationship between WLB and (a) job satisfaction and (b) life satisfaction will be stronger in countries higher in

individualism. H5. The negative relationship between WLB and (c) anxiety and (d) depression will be stronger in countries higher in individualism.

2.3. Moderating effects of gender egalitarianism

GE reflects the presence of “beliefs [in the society] about whether members’ biological sex should determine the roles that they play in their homes, business organizations, and communities” (House et al., 2004, p. 347). Low GE cultures are characterized by be- liefs in the traditional gendered division of labour, which depict men as breadwinners and women as caregivers and homemakers (Wood & Eagly, 2002). Notably, extant research has shown that in high GE cultures there is less adhesion to traditional gender pat- terns and it is considered personally and socially acceptable that both women and men pursue their own life goals and struggle to guarantee the desired level of involvement in both work and non-work roles (Lyness & Judiesch, 2014).

Research on the influence of GE on the work–life interface is still at a very early stage and cross-national research in particular is very scarce (Lyness & Judiesch, 2014; Lyness & Kropf, 2005). Lyness and Judiesch (2008) found a GE moderated relationship, with managers’ self-rating of WLB more positively related to peer’s and supervisor’s advancement potential rating for female managers in high gender egalitarian cultures and for men managers in low gender egalitarian cultures. In this paper, we hypothesize that WLB will be associated with higher job and life satisfaction and lower anxiety and depression for individuals living in high GE cultures than for those living in low GE cultures. We contend that living in cultures where both men’s and women’s work and non-work role involvement is encouraged and considered socially acceptable can amplify the beneficial effects of WLB (Corrigall & Konrad, 2006). Conversely, in low GE cultures we believe that achieving WLB may be less beneficial as traditional gender role prescriptions are pre- vailing and may instil in the population the expectations that men should prioritize work over the family and women should do the opposite. Thus, experiencing WLB might not be perceived as beneficial as it might be in high GE cultures because it is inconsistent with societal expectations about gender division of labour. Accordingly,

H6. Gender egalitarianism will moderate the relationship between WLB and individual outcomes, such that:

H6. The positive relationship between WLB and (a) job satisfaction and (b) life satisfaction will be stronger in countries higher in

GE. H6. The negative relationship between WLB and (c) anxiety and (d) depression will be stronger in countries higher in GE.

Fig. 1 illustrates our general structural model.

3. Method

3.1. Samples and procedures

Data were collected from six countries (New Zealand, Spain, France, Italy, Malaysia and China) and included seven samples. Two separate samples were collected from New Zealand: Maori (indigenous people of New Zealand) and New Zealand European, the

364 J.M. Haar et al. / Journal of Vocational Behavior 85 (2014) 361–373

Fig. 1. General study model: Outcomes of WLB across cultures.

largest population group (equivalent to Caucasians in the US). Table 1 illustrates the descriptive data of the seven samples as well as of the combined sample. The authors personally collected data from four countries including both samples from New Zealand, while two research assistants native of China and Malaysia collected data from these countries. We used our networks to generate the largest number of employees from a broad range of organizations. Then, following basic principles of snowball sampling (Biernacki & Waldford, 1981), we asked recruited participants to recommend participation in the research to their contacts. The necessary require- ment to be included in the sample was being engaged in a full-time job. All surveys where English is not the first language were trans- lated into the native language (e.g., French, Italian, Mandarin) and then back-translated to minimize translation error (Brislin, 1980).

Overall, the combined sample includes 1416 employees of whom 546 come from collectivistic cultures (Maori, Malaysia and China). The average age was 37.6 years, gender was fairly evenly split (55% female) and the majority were married (70%) and parents (61%).

Table 1 Overall study demographics.

Country Demographics Sector

N Age (years) Gender (female) Married Parent Private Public Not-for-profit

New Zealand New Zealand Maori France Italy Spain Malaysia China

366 335 139 238 127 110 101

34.3 38.9 39.2 44.0 39.7 32.1 31.4

55% 63% 62% 43% 50% 48% 63%

70% 67% 80% 69% 78% 75% 47%

51% 69% 74% 60% 66% 63% 43%

56% 22% 74% 63% 62% 4%

45%

40% 70% 22% 35% 36% 96% 38%

4% 8% 4% 2% 2% 0%

17%

Total sample Collectivistic: Average age Gender Married Parents Industry:

1416 Maori, Malaysia and China (n = 546) 37.6 years (SD = 11.5 years) 55% female 70% 61% 46.8% Private 48.5% Public 4.6% Not-for-profit

365 J.M. Haar et al. / Journal of Vocational Behavior 85 (2014) 361–373

3.2. Measures

All samples used the same items, and except where noted, all items were rated on a 5-point scale (1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree). Items were averaged to produce composite indicators, with higher scores indicating higher values of the given mea- sure. All measures achieved adequate reliability within each country sample (all α N .70). We thus combined the seven samples to test our hypotheses (with alphas reported in Table 3).

3.2.1. WLB WLB was measured using a 3-item measure by Haar (2013). A sample item is “I manage to balance the demands of my work and

personal/family life well”. As this measure is still new, we conducted factor analysis (principal components, varimax rotation) for each distinct population and on the combined sample. The three items loaded onto a single factor universally across all seven samples with eigenvalues greater than 1; accounting for sizeable amounts of the variance and achieving adequate reliability in all samples as shown in Table 2.

3.2.2. Job satisfaction Job satisfaction was measured using 3-items by Judge, Bono, Erez, and Locke (2005). A sample question is “Most days I am enthu-

siastic about my work”.

3.2.3. Life satisfaction Life satisfaction was measured using the 5-item scale by Diener, Emmons, Larsen, and Griffin (1985). A sample question is “In most

ways my life is close to ideal”.

3.2.4. Anxiety and depression Anxiety and depression were assessed using 6-items by Axtell et al. (2002). This measure has been shown to have good psychomet-

ric properties (Haar, 2013; Spell & Arnold, 2007). The items were rated on a 5-point scale (1 = never to 5 = all the time). Presented with three adjectives for each measure, respondents were asked to indicate how often each adjective applied to them while they were at work.

3.2.5. Collectivism Collectivism was assessed by coding cultures using GLOBE scores for in-group collectivism (House et al., 2004). This approach is

superior to the typical dichotomous approach often used in the work–family literature (e.g. Spector et al., 2004), as it offers a range of scores that better reflect cultural variations across countries. New Zealand (European) was rated the most individualistic (3.67), and China the most collectivistic (5.8). One issue we came across was that the GLOBE study does not list New Zealand Maori as a sep- arate culture than the rest of the New Zealand population. Indeed, while making up 14% of the population, it is grouped into New Zealand culture as a whole. Since Maori have been found to have a strong collectivistic culture (Brougham & Haar, 2013; Haar, Roche, & Taylor, 2012) and prior research has widely documented that is distinct from the individualistic New Zealand European (Haar & Brougham, 2011; Podsiadlowski & Fox, 2011), we decided to use for this particular ethnic group the same score as in China (5.8). This score aligns with the GLOBE collectivism score for the Southern Asia cluster (Gupta, Surie, Javidan, & Chhokar, 2002), which provides an overall score for the six countries that make up the cluster. As such, we suggest that this provides a useful proxy for a collectivistic culture that aligns well with Maori (Brougham & Haar, 2013). Furthermore, we tested our model without in- cluding the Maori sample and we found no noticeable differences in our results. Therefore, we suggest that including the Maori sam- ple does not distort our overall findings and provides an additional rich new population to explore.

3.2.6. Gender egalitarianism Gender egalitarianism was assessed by coding cultures using the GLOBE scores (House et al., 2004). China was rated the least gen-

der egalitarian (3.68) with Italy the highest (4.88). As with collectivism, this approach is superior to the dichotomous approach but

Table 2 Results of exploratory factor analysis for WLB.

Responses were coded 1 = strongly disagree, 5 = strongly agree Factor loadings for each country

NZ NZ Maori France Italy Spain Malaysia China Combined

1. I am satisfied with my WLB, enjoying both roles .847 .906 .875 .873 .801 .912 .907 .874 2. Nowadays, I seem to enjoy every part of my life equally well .866 .904 .842 .870 .841 .882 .809 .875 3. I manage to balance the demands of my work and .821 .883 .910 .800 .886 .916 .867 .860

personal/family life well

Number of items in measure All analyses confirmed a one factor 3-item measure Eigenvalues 2.141 2.471 2.304 2.159 2.134 2.450 2.230 2.267 Percentage variance 71.4% 80.6% 76.8% 72.0% 71.1% 81.7% 74.3% 75.6% Cronbach’s alpha .80 .88 .85 .80 .80 .89 .83 .84

366 J.M. Haar et al. / Journal of Vocational Behavior 85 (2014) 361–373

similarly, does not have a score for Maori. We followed the same logic outlined above for collectivism and used the same score as in China.

3.2.7. Control variables In line with prior research (Carlson et al., 2009), we included gender (coded as 1 = female and 0 = male) and work–family conflict

as covariates in our analyses. We used 6-items from the scale by Carlson, Kacmar, and Williams (2000) to measure work-to-family conflict (WFC) and family-to-work conflict (FWC). A sample item for WFC is “I have to miss family activities due to the amount of time I must spend on work responsibilities” and a sample item for FWC is “The time I spend on family responsibilities often interfere with my work responsibilities”.

3.3. Measurement models

To confirm the separate dimensions of the various study’s measures in the combined sample, a CFA was run in SEM using AMOS 20.0. We followed Williams, Vandenberg, and Edwards (2009) recommendations regarding the goodness-of-fit measures: (1) the comparative fit index (CFI ≥ .95), (2) the root-mean-square error of approximation (RMSEA ≤ .08), and (3) the standardized root mean residual (SRMR ≤ .10). The hypothesized measurement model included seven distinct factors: WLB, WFC, FWC, job satisfaction, life satisfaction, anxiety and depression, and resulted in a good fit to the data, meeting all minimum requirements: χ2 (209) = 771.0 (p = .000), CFI = .97, RMSEA = 0.05 and SRMR = 0.04. The goodness of the hypothesized model was also confirmed by testing al- ternative models as advocated by Hair, Black, Babin, and Anderson (2010). Overall, the hypothesized measurement model did fit the data better than all the alternative models (results available from authors), which resulted in all alternative models being a significant- ly poorer fit (p b .001). This confirmed WLB to be a distinct construct from WFC and FWC.

Multi-group analysis CFA was conducted to establish measurement invariance between the seven samples (Bou & Satorra, 2010). While SEM model comparisons typically test chi-squared differences, this heavy reliance has been criticized (Schmitt & Kuljanin, 2008). This is because large samples and complex models are highly susceptible to significant changes in the chi-squared value. Cheung and Rensvold (2000) offered a number of alternative goodness-of-fit measures and we focus on the RMSEA because Meade and Kroustalis (2006) show that this measure is not affected by model complexity. Our model showed measurement equivalence as the difference in RMSEA between the seven samples; constrained and unconstrained models were very small at .002 (0.022 versus 0.024), which is below the critical value established by Cheung and Rensvold (2000). As such, this gives us confidence that the com- bined sample has metric invariance and can be analysed as a combined sample.

3.4. Analysis

Hypotheses were tested using SEM in AMOS v.20 to assess the direct (Hypotheses 1–4) and potential moderating effects of I/C (Hypotheses 5) and GE (Hypotheses 6), due to SEM being found to be superior to regression analysis (Cheng, 2001; Iacobucci, Saldanha, & Deng, 2007). Aligned with recommendations by Aiken and West (1991), the interaction terms were z-scored. Because the size of the structural models became overly complex when we included both moderators in the models, we ran two sets of mod- eration models for I/C and GE, respectively. For moderation analyses in SEM, all three z-scored WLB items were multiplied by the sin- gle GLOBE variable (I/C or GE score) to create a new variable in each model: (1) the interaction of WLB × I/C, and (2) the interaction of WLB × GE.

4. Results

4.1. Correlations

Descriptive statistics and intercorrelations for the study variables in the combined sample are shown in Table 3. The four outcome variables were all significantly correlated to each other (all p b .01) in the expected directions. WLB, WFC and

FWC were also correlated (all p b .01). In addition, I/C was significantly correlated to WLB (r = .08, p b .01), anxiety and depression (both r = − .14, p b .01), while GE was significantly correlated to WLB (r = − .09, p b .01), job satisfaction (r = .18, p b .01), anxiety (r = .34, p b .01) and depression (r = .15, p b .01). Furthermore, I/C and GE were significantly correlated to each other (r = − .38, p b .01).

4.2. Structural models

The two moderated SEM models included an additional interaction term to the measurement model: (1) WLB × I/C, and (2) WLB × GE. Consequently, both models were larger than the original measurement model. Despite this, the moderated structural models still resulted in a good fit to the data, meeting all minimum requirements for I/C (model 1): χ2 (307) = 970.4 (p = .000), CFI = 0.96, RMSEA = 0.04 and SRMR = 0.03, and for GE (model 2): χ2 (307) = 1145.1 (p = .000), CFI = 0.96, RMSEA = 0.04 and SRMR = 0.04. Table 4 highlights the significant direct and moderation effects from both models.

Aligned with the recommendations of Grace and Bollen (2005), unstandardized regression coefficients are presented in our tables. Table 4 shows that WLB was significantly related to job satisfaction (path coefficient = .50, p b .001) and life satisfaction (path coefficient = .52, p b .001), supporting Hypotheses 1 and 2. WLB was also significantly linked with anxiety (path coefficient = − .37,

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Table 3 Means, standard deviations and correlations of model variables.

M SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

1. Work–life balance 3.4 .84 .84 2. Work–family conflict 2.9 1.0 − .40⁎⁎ .87 3. Family–work conflict 2.3 .79 − .15⁎⁎ .36⁎⁎ .77 4. Collectivism 4.9 .85 .08⁎⁎ .00 .10⁎⁎ – 5. Gender egalitarianism 4.2 .46 − .09⁎⁎ .02 − .05⁎ − .38⁎⁎ – 6. Job satisfaction 3.6 .72 .36⁎⁎ − .15⁎⁎ − .13⁎⁎ − .02 .18⁎⁎ .79 7. Life satisfaction 3.4 .74 .47⁎⁎ − .18⁎⁎ − .09⁎⁎ .03 − .05 .43⁎⁎ .83 8. Anxiety 2.7 1.0 − .34⁎⁎ .22⁎⁎ .12⁎⁎ − .14⁎⁎ .34⁎⁎ − .27⁎⁎ − .36⁎⁎ .88 9. Depression 2.4 .92 − .34⁎⁎ .15⁎⁎ .09⁎⁎ − .14⁎⁎ .15⁎⁎ − .42⁎⁎ − .39⁎⁎ .63⁎⁎ .87

N = 1416 (Cronbach’s alpha is reported on diagonal line in italics). ⁎ p b .05. ⁎⁎ p b .01.

p b .001), and depression (path coefficient = − .38, p b .001), supporting Hypotheses 3 and 4. Furthermore, we re-analysed the data separately for all seven samples and these confirmed the effects held in all country samples (see Table 5). Importantly, these effects were found after controlling for WFC and FWC.

Model 1 explored I/C as a moderator, and it was directly and significantly related to both anxiety and depression (both path coef- ficients = − .10, p b .001). Significant interaction effects were found between WLB and I/C towards job satisfaction (path coeffi- cient = − .12, p b .01) and life satisfaction (path coefficient = − .11, p b .01). Model 2 explored GE as a moderator, and it was directly and significantly related to job satisfaction (path coefficient = .08, p b .001), anxiety (path coefficient = .29, p b .001), and depression (path coefficient = .10, p b .001). Significant interaction effects were found between WLB and GE towards job satisfaction (path coefficient = .05, p b .05), life satisfaction (path coefficient = .10, p b .001), and anxiety (path coefficient = − .09, p b .01).

4.3. Interaction plots

To provide a better understanding of the interaction effects, plots are presented in Figs. 2 to 4. The interactions for I/C on job and life satisfaction (Fig. 2) are almost identical and are thus reported together. They show that there

are significant differences between respondent groups, with respondents living in individualistic cultures reporting higher levels of satisfaction (both job and life) at low levels of WLB compared to respondents living in collectivistic cultures. At high levels of WLB, respondents living in individualistic cultures reported stable levels of job and life satisfaction, while respondents living in collectivistic cultures reported significantly less job and life satisfaction, in line with our expectations. Overall, employees living in individualistic cultures reported significantly higher job and life satisfaction as expected, supporting Hypotheses 5a and 5b. Results provided no sup- port for Hypotheses 5c and 5d.

The interactions for GE on job and life satisfaction (Fig. 3) are almost identical and again, we represent them together. They show that there are significant differences between respondent groups, with respondents living in high gender egalitarian cultures reporting higher levels of job and life satisfaction at low levels of WLB compared to respondents living in less GE cultures. At high levels of WLB, all respondents reported higher levels of job and life satisfaction, but respondents in high GE cultures reported signif- icantly higher levels of job satisfaction and life satisfaction than those living in less GE cultures. Overall, employees living in GE cultures reported significantly higher levels of job satisfaction and life satisfaction. Fig. 4 shows there are no significant differences towards anxiety at low levels of WLB between respondent groups at low or high GE. At high levels of WLB, all respondents report lower anxiety

Table 4 Final structural model results (combined data).

Outcomes

Job satisfaction Life satisfaction Anxiety Depression

Model 1: Work–life balance .50⁎⁎⁎ .52⁎⁎⁎ − .37⁎⁎⁎ − .38⁎⁎⁎

Collectivism .00 − .02 − .10⁎⁎⁎ − .10⁎⁎⁎

Work–life balance × collectivism − .12⁎⁎⁎ − .11⁎⁎⁎ .06 .05 Total R2 .25 .33 .18 .18

Model 2: Gender egalitarianism .08⁎⁎⁎ − .02 .29⁎⁎⁎ .10⁎⁎⁎

Work–life balance × gender egalitarianism .05⁎ .10⁎⁎⁎ − .09⁎⁎ − .02 Total R2 .25 .33 .28 .18

Unstandardized regression weights, only main effects are shown. We controlled for gender, work–family conflict and family–work conflict directly on the DVs, and these three control variables covary on WLB. Similarly, all four DVs covary.

⁎ p b 0.05. ⁎⁎ p b .01. ⁎⁎⁎ p b .001.

368 J.M. Haar et al. / Journal of Vocational Behavior 85 (2014) 361–373

Table 5 Direct effects structural model results (individual samples).

Outcomes

New Zealand Maori: New Zealand European France Italy Spain Malaysia China

Job satisfaction Work–life balance Total R2

.26⁎⁎⁎

.13 .67⁎⁎⁎

.42 .58⁎⁎⁎

.22 .57⁎⁎⁎

.72 .48⁎⁎⁎

.15 .55⁎⁎⁎

.41 .59⁎⁎⁎

.40

Life satisfaction Work–life balance Total R2

.21⁎⁎⁎

.12 .66⁎⁎⁎

.39 .65⁎⁎⁎

.58 .73⁎⁎⁎

.40 .49⁎⁎⁎

.36 .34⁎⁎⁎

.32 .66⁎⁎⁎

.47

Anxiety Work–life balance Total R2

− .17⁎⁎⁎

.09 − .40⁎⁎⁎

.26 − .26⁎

.16 − .39⁎⁎⁎

.19 − .34⁎⁎⁎

.24 − .42⁎⁎

.26 − .19†

.12

Depression Work–life balance Total R2

− .25⁎⁎⁎

.11 − .46⁎⁎⁎

.23 − .39⁎⁎

.10 − .37⁎⁎⁎

.21 − .32⁎⁎

.12 − .64⁎⁎

.33 − .34⁎⁎

.15

† p b 0.1. ⁎ p b 0.05. ⁎⁎ p b .01. ⁎⁎⁎ p b .001.

although those respondents in high GE cultures reported a steeper decrease compared to respondents in low GE cultures. These find- ings support Hypotheses 6a, 6b, and 6c.

Overall, the structural model accounted for moderate amounts of variance for all outcomes, and these were identical between the two moderation models for most outcomes: job satisfaction (R2 = .25), life satisfaction (R2 = .33), and depression (R2 = .18). Only towards anxiety were there major differences in variance, with the GE model accounting for far greater variance (R2 = .28) than the I/ C model (R2 = .18).

4.4. Supplementary analyses

Finally, an ANOVA test was conducted to examine the reported levels of WLB between the seven samples. Although the ANOVA test is important to know that at least two groups differ, it does not identify the groups that actually differ. Therefore, we run a mul- tigroup mean comparison between all distinct populations to identify the pattern of differences in our results by using the Fisher’s Least Significant Difference (LSD) and Student–Newman–Keuls tests as post-hoc analyses. The LSD test indicates which group config- urations significantly differ from one another, whereas the Student–Newman–Keuls is a sequential test designed to indicate which groups are significantly different from all the others. It orders mean scores from the lowest to the highest and compares pairs of groups for significant differences. Overall, the F-tests (results available from authors) revealed the presence of a significant difference for WLB across sample between at least two distinct populations. The Student–Newman–Keuls test revealed that the only significant difference existed between the Spanish and Italian samples, with Spanish respondents reported significantly higher levels of WLB (M = 3.47, s.d. = 0.76) than the Italian respondents (M = 3.24, s.d. = 0.79). Notably, the Maori sample (M = 3.56,

3.5

2.5

1.5

Jo b

an d

Li fe

S at

is fa

ct io

Individualism

Collectivism

Low Work-Life Balance High Work-Life Balance

Fig. 2. Interaction between WLB and I/C on Job and Life satisfaction.

image of Fig.�2

369 J.M. Haar et al. / Journal of Vocational Behavior 85 (2014) 361–373

4.5

Low Work-Life Balance High Work-Life Balance

Low Gender

Egalitarianism

High Gender

Egalitarianism

Jo b

an d

L ife

S at

is fa

ct io

n 4

3.5

Fig. 3. Interaction between WLB and Gender egalitarianism on Job and Life satisfaction.

s.d. = 0.94) reported significantly higher levels of WLB than the samples from Italy (p b .000), New Zealand (p b .000), France (p b .01), Malaysia (p b .05), but not China (p = .052).

5. Discussion and conclusions

The present study investigated the outcomes of WLB on job satisfaction, life satisfaction, anxiety and depression across seven distinct cultures. More specifically, we explored whether individualism/collectivism (I/C) and gender egalitarianism (GE) moderated the relationship between WLB and these four outcomes. We found strong and consistent support across all cultures for WLB to be as- sociated with outcomes in the expected directions, albeit with some differences related to variations in national culture. Regarding I/C, as expected, we found that high levels of WLB were more positively associated with job and life satisfaction for individuals in individ- ualistic cultures, compared with those in collectivistic cultures. As such, we provide the first or one of the first empirical evidence that the outcomes of WLB can be better understood by including I/C in the analysis. A possible explanation for this result is linked to the importance that WLB has in individualistic cultures where it is a critical component influencing individuals’ subjective assessment of the overall quality of their work and life experiences (Spector et al., 2004, 2007). Furthermore, in individualistic cultures individuals generally have full responsibility for achieving WLB. Therefore, it is possible that, once achieved, WLB may lead to higher feelings of satisfaction in life due to contentment linked to this achievement. Notably, I/C did not significantly moderate the relation- ship between WLB and anxiety or depression. This is an interesting finding that can be understood in light of the broader network and greater level of social/family support usually experienced by individuals in collectivistic cultures that may help them to cope better with life adversities (Powell, Francesco, & Ling, 2009).

Regarding GE, we found that the beneficial effects of WLB on job and life satisfaction were most salient for individuals living in highly gender egalitarian cultures. This suggests that people in high GE cultures tend to be more satisfied with their job and life when experiencing high WLB than people in low GE cultures. This result is remarkable as this is the first study that documents the presence of differentiated outcomes of WLB across cultures that vary in their levels of GE. A possible explanation for this result is that in high GE cultures there is less adhesion to traditional gender role beliefs and therefore both women and men can perceive equal opportunities to pursue personal and professional life goals (House et al., 2004). Importantly, in such cultures there is higher

2.5 Low Gender

Egalitarianism

High Gender

Egalitarianism

Low Work-Life Balance High Work-Life Balance

A nx

ie ty

1.5

Fig. 4. Interaction between WLB and Gender egalitarianism on Anxiety.

370 J.M. Haar et al. / Journal of Vocational Behavior 85 (2014) 361–373

social approval and more tolerance towards the individual’s desire to balance work and non-work roles according to personal life preferences and values without having to sacrifice one domain over the others (Corrigall & Konrad, 2006; Lyness & Kropf, 2005). As a result, individuals may feel more satisfied when experiencing WLB as it is consistent with both personal and societal values and beliefs.

GE also moderated the relationship between WLB and anxiety. The negative relationship between WLB and anxiety was stronger for those living in high GE cultures. This implies that achieving WLB in high GE cultures is likely to enhance the beneficial effects of role balance on mental health. In line with our knowledge that individuals tend to internalize societal gender norms of the country they live in (Eagly & Wood, 2012), this finding indicates that there may be less mental pressure and anxiety for those achieving greater WLB in high GE cultures, indicating the presence of higher acknowledgement of benefits associated with greater role balance. It is also important to note that the low levels of anxiety for people living in high GE cultures may depend on the fact that in such cultures, people are more likely to engage in activities that are functional to experience detachment from work and replenish mental and phys- ical energies (Larson, Verma, & Dworkin, 2001).

5.1. Theoretical contributions

The present study contributes to the emerging WLB literature in several ways. The present study makes significant contributions to the work–life literature. First, we strengthen research on WLB by establishing its relationship with positive outcomes for individuals, which holds after controlling for work–family conflict. This supports the insightfulness of the perception-centred approach character- izing WLB research. It extends prior work conceptualizing WLB as a holistic construct (Greenhaus & Allen, 2011; Kossek et al., 2014) being different than work–family conflict and enrichment (Carlson et al., 2009; Greenhaus & Allen, 2011; Valcour, 2007). We believe that this will help to encourage future research on WLB, and this is important because WLB, as a concept distinct from work–life con- flict and work–life enrichment (Valcour, 2007), has the potential to shed light on the complexity of the work–life interface. Our study also emphasizes the importance to focus on work–life balance rather than on work–family balance, as the former term reflects more truthfully the myriads of personal life situations and role involvement decisions that nowadays characterize the contemporary society (Hall et al., 2013). This is consistent with major trends in work–life research emphasizing WLB to be a broad issue relevant for all working people (Haar, 2013; Kossek et al., 2014).

Second, this is one of the first studies that explores the outcomes of WLB across several countries and considers the influence of two distinct cultural dimensions, namely individualism/collectivism and gender egalitarianism. This is important as we compare countries that present noticeable differences with regard to their values, assumptions, norms, and belief systems about the gender roles. Thus, our paper enriches comparative work–life research at the individual level and contributes to bridge the macro–micro gap between country-level contexts and individual-level variables (Bamberger, 2008; Ollier-Malaterre et al., 2013). Moreover, while a couple of studies have explored the relationship between WLB and GE (e.g., Lyness & Judiesch, 2014), this is the first study, to our knowledge, that considers the moderating role of I/C on the positive effects generated by WLB. This is noteworthy given that I/C represents one of the most studied dimension in cross-cultural research (Brewer & Chen, 2007) and is an important boundary con- dition of our model explaining why people living in different countries perceive the benefits of WLB to greater or lesser extent. Fol- lowing recent recommendations in cross-cultural research (e.g., Taras, Rowney, & Steel, 2009), we used GLOBE scores for I/C and GE as these are reliable and objective instruments for quantifying cultural differences (House et al., 2004).

Third, we tested WLB effects in some settings of growing interest in the literature (e.g. Malaysia and China) and in some understudied settings (e.g. New Zealand European and Maori). Thus, this article contributes to establish the generalizability of work–life concepts and measures developed in Western countries to other regions of the world (Kossek & Ollier-Malaterre, 2013; Ollier-Malaterre et al., 2013; Powell et al., 2009). This is important given that WLB has considerable implications for people all around the world (Hill et al., 2004; Lyness & Judiesch, 2014). Our finding that the direct effects of WLB hold across all of the study’s samples aligns with research pointing out the universal benefit of the work–life interface (Hill et al., 2004; Poelmans et al., 2003; Shaffer, Joplin, & Hsu, 2011; Spector et al., 2004, 2007). However, our finding that two dimensions of national culture (I/C and GE) moderate the re- lationships between WLB and individual outcomes highlights the need to include cultural dimensions in research designs.

5.2. Practical implications

Our findings imply that achieving WLB may hold the key to greater job and life satisfaction, and diminished mental health issues, and this may hold in many countries. This has important implications for organizations that should make sure to assess their employees’ WLB in addition to measuring their work–life conflict. Organizations should invest in promoting WLB by implementing work–life policies, such as flexible working hours, and by embracing a supportive work culture that encourages em- ployees to use the work–life policies that are available in the organization (Allen, 2001; Eaton, 2003; Hammer, Kossek, Anger, Bodner, & Zimmerman, 2011). In addition, encouraging employees to recognize and celebrate their success in balancing roles (when achieved) and to elongate the time frame upon which they to gauge their work–life balance (Marsh, 2010) is also critical to foster greater benefits through understanding the potential changing nature of WLB. This may be particularly important in individu- alistic cultures and in high gender egalitarian cultures where work–life balance seems to be especially beneficial. Moreover, this can also prevent – especially in individualistic cultures – employees become frustrated when experiencing temporary situations of role imbalance.

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5.3. Limitations, future research and conclusions

While the present study encompasses seven distinct samples across six countries, a limitation is the cross-sectional, self-report na- ture of the data, although this approach is common in other work–family cross-cultural studies (Greenhaus & Allen, 2011; Spector et al., 2007). To alleviate this limitation we conducted higher order statistical approaches (i.e., CFA) using SEM to confirm the distinct nature of our measures. Furthermore, Kenny (2008) suggests that SEM does somewhat mitigate the potential bias related to the presence of common method variance. Similarly, testing for moderation effects also reduces the chances for common method variance (Evans, 1985). In addition, as advocated by Haar (2013), a self-report approach is needed to accurately tap the perception-centred na- ture of WLB. While additional secondary source data (e.g., supervisor, partner) would be preferable, it was prohibitively difficult to gain such data across a wide range of countries and individuals. As such, the data collected here are similar to that undertaken in other cross-cultural studies, but the CFA and structural analysis run in our study provide some unique statistical contributions, and the moderation analyses also help offset such limitations.

The present study has implications for future studies, especially cross-cultural studies in the work–life research areas. We hope that it will encourage research based on the concept of WLB, which is an important concept shedding light in job and life satisfaction as well as mental health, and which is more generalizable across cultures than what its Western origin presumed. While our study used robust scores for I/C and GE, it has been noted that individual-level allocentrism and idiocentrism may make some individuals more sensitive to cultural contexts than others (Triandis, Leung, Villareal, & Clack, 1985; Wang, Lawler, Walumbwa, & Shi, 2004). Therefore future studies should strive to measure both culture-level and individual-level of I/C and GE. Furthermore, there is to date no research investigating the role that other cultural dimensions may play in the relationship between WLB and outcomes. In particular, we encourage researchers to include in future studies the four other dimensions identified in a recent review as extensively impacting work–life conflict, enrichment and balance (Ollier-Malaterre, 2014): i.e. power distance, uncertainty avoidance, humane orientation (House et al., 2004) and specificity/diffusion (Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, 1998). This area of research is almost void and opens avenues for many fruitful studies.

In conclusion, the present study emphasizes the crucial role that WLB plays in promoting greater job and life satisfaction and better mental health across employees in different cultures. It also points out that culture, in this study I/C and GE, moderates these relation- ships. Taken together, the findings of this study offer a fresh and nuanced picture on similarities and differences across cultures, which we hope will encourage future studies in the growing field of comparative work–life research.

Acknowledgments

We thank Tammy Allen and other conference attendees for their helpful feedback on an earlier version of this paper presented at the International Center for Work and Family 2013 conference. We are also grateful to the anonymous reviewers who gave us insight- ful suggestions.

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tations. Human Relations, 55(9), 1071–1096. Redding, S. G. (1993). The spirit of Chinese capitalism. New York: de Gruyter. Redding, S. G., & Wong, G. Y. Y. (1986). The psychology of Chinese organizational behaviour. In M. H. Bond (Ed.), The psychology of the Chinese people (pp. 267–295).

New York: Oxford University Press. Rothbard, N. P. (2001). Enriching or depleting? The dynamics of engagement in work and family roles. Administrative Science Quarterly, 46(4), 655–684. Schmitt, N., & Kuljanin, G. (2008). Measurement invariance: Review of practice and implications. Human Resource Management Review, 18(4), 210–222. Shaffer, M. A., Joplin, J. R. W., & Hsu, Y. S. (2011). Expanding the boundaries of work–family research: A review and agenda for future research. International Journal of

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Spector, P. E., Allen, T. D., Poelmans, S. A. Y., Lapierre, L. M., Cooper, C. L., O’Driscoll, M., et al. (2007). Cross-national differences in relationships of work demands, job satisfaction, and turnover intentions with work–family conflict. Personnel Psychology, 60(4), 805–835.

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Personality, 19(4), 395–415. Trompenaars, A., & Hampden-Turner, C. (1998). Riding the waves of culture: Understanding diversity in global business. New York: McGraw Hill. Valcour, M. (2007). Work-based resources as moderators of the relationship between work hours and satisfaction with work–family balance. Journal of Applied

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Outcomes of work–life balance on job satisfaction, life satisfaction and mental health: A study across seven cultures
- 1. Introduction
- 2. Theoretical background and hypotheses
  - 2.1. Work–life balance
  - 2.2. Moderating effects of individualism/collectivism
  - 2.3. Moderating effects of gender egalitarianism
- 3. Method
  - 3.1. Samples and procedures
  - 3.2. Measures
    - 3.2.1. WLB
    - 3.2.2. Job satisfaction
    - 3.2.3. Life satisfaction
    - 3.2.4. Anxiety and depression
    - 3.2.5. Collectivism
    - 3.2.6. Gender egalitarianism
    - 3.2.7. Control variables
  - 3.3. Measurement models
  - 3.4. Analysis
- 4. Results
  - 4.1. Correlations
  - 4.2. Structural models
  - 4.3. Interaction plots
  - 4.4. Supplementary analyses
- 5. Discussion and conclusions
  - 5.1. Theoretical contributions
  - 5.2. Practical implications
  - 5.3. Limitations, future research and conclusions
- Acknowledgments
- References
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When two balanced dice are rolled, there are 36 possible outcomes. Find the probability that either doubles are rolled or the sum of the dice is 8

Question 1

When two balanced dice are rolled, there are 36 possible outcomes. Find the probability that either doubles are rolled or the sum of the dice is 8. (Round answer to four decimals.)

Question 2

A card is drawn at random from a standard 52-card deck. Find the probability that the card is not a queen. (Round answer to four decimals.)

Question 3

A lottery game has balls numbered 1 through 15. What is the probability of selecting an even numbered ball or an 8? (Round answer to four decimals)

Question 4

A class consists of 65 women and 18 men. If a student is randomly selected, what is the probability that the student is a man?(Round answer to four decimals.)

Question 5

A single die is rolled one time. Find the probability of rolling an odd number or a number less than 5. (Round answer to four decimals.)

Question 6

The odds in favor of Carl beating his friend in a round of golf are 7 : 2. Find the probability that Carl will beat his friend. (Round answer to four decimals or type answer in ratio form or type answer as a fraction)

Question 7

The odds in favor of Trudy beating her friend in a round of golf are 1 : 6. Find the probability that Trudy will lose. (Round answer to four decimals or type answer in ratio form or type answer as a fraction)

Question 8

The odds against Carl beating his friend in a round of golf are 5 : 2. Find the probability that Carl will lose. (Round answer to four decimals or type answer in ratio form or type answer as a fraction)

Question 9

A card is drawn at random from a standard 52-card deck. Find the probability that the card is neither an ace nor a heart. (Round answer to four decimals.)

Question 10

A card is drawn from a well-shuffled deck of 52 cards. What is the probability of drawing a face card or a 4? (Round answer to four decimals.)

Question 11

A class consists of 65 women and 18 men. If a student is randomly selected, what is the probability that the student is a woman? (Round answer to four decimals)

Question 12

A lottery game has balls numbered 1 through 15. What is the probability of selecting an even numbered ball or a 8? (Round answer to four decimals.)

Question 13

Two fair dice are rolled. Find the probability that the sum of the two numbers is not greater than 5. (Round answer to four decimals.)

Question 14

A card is drawn at random from a standard 52-card deck. Find the probability that the card is not a queen. (Round answer to four decimals.)

Question 15

The results of a medical test show that of 115 people selected at random who were given the test, 5 tested positive and 110 tested negative. Determine the odds in favor of a person selected at random testing positive on the test. ( Write the answer as a fraction or ratio or round 4 decimals.)

Question 16

The results of a medical test show that of 115 people selected at random who were given the test, 5 tested positive and 110 tested negative. Determine the odds in against of a person selected at random testing positive on the test. (Write the answer as a fraction or ratio or round 4 decimals.)

Question 17

In a certain town, 20% of people commute to work by bicycle. If a person is selected randomly from the town, what are the odds against selecting someone who commutes by bicycle? (Round answer to nearest whole number, write as a fraction, or a ratio.)

Question 18

In a certain town, 20% of people commute to work by bicycle. If a person is selected randomly from the town, what are the odds in favor of selecting someone who commutes by bicycle? (Round answer to nearest whole number, decimal rounded to 2 decimals, write as a fraction, or as a ratio.)

Question 19

A sports shop sold tennis rackets in 2 different weights, 3 types of string, and 4 grip sizes. How many different rackets could they sell?(Type answer as a whole number.)

Question 20

An order of award presentations has been devised for seven people: Jeff, Karen, Lyle, Maria, Norm, Olivia, and Paul. In how many ways can the people be presented? (Type answer as a whole number.)

Question 21

If the police have 8 suspects, how many different ways can they select 5 for a lineup? (Type answer as a whole number.)

Question 22

If the police have 8 suspects, how many different ways can they select 5 for a lineup based on height? (Type answer as a whole number.)

Question 23

A bag contains 7 apples and 5 oranges. If you select 6 pieces of fruit without looking, how many ways can you get 6 apples? (Type answer as a whole number.)

Question 24

How many ways are there of getting exactly one die showing a 3 when a die is rolled twice? (Type answer as a whole number.)

Question 25

One card is selected from a deck of cards. Find the probability of selecting a black card or a king. (Round answer to four decimals.)

Question 26

One card is selected from a deck of cards. Find the probability of selecting a diamond or a card less than 7. (Round answer to four decimals.)

Question 27

If P(A) = 0.5, P(B) = 0.4, and P(A or B) = 0.7, find P(A and B). (Round answer to one decimal.)

Question 28

If P(A) = 0.1, P(B) = 0.1, and P(A and B) = 0, find P(A or B). (Round answer to one decimal.) Flag question: Question 29Question 291 ptsIf P(B) = 0.3, P(A or B) = 0.4, and P(A and B) = 0.5, find P(A). (Round answer to one decimal.)

Question 52

If you are dealt two cards successively (with replacement of the first) from a standard 52-card deck, find the probability of getting a face card on the first card and an ace on the second. ( Round to 4 decimals )

Question 53

When arriving at the traffic light closest to your home, there is a 25% chance that the light will be red. Find the probability that the light will be red. (Round to the nearest tenth.)

Question 54

While this assignment was being created, Weather.com indicated that there is a 20% chance of rain for your home region. Find the probability that there is a chance that it will rain in your home region. (Round to the nearest hundredth.)

Question 55

When Mendel conducted his famous genetics experiments with peas, one sample of offspring consisted of 428 green peas and 152 yellow peas. Based on those results, find the probability of getting an offspring pea that is green. ( Round to 4 decimals )

Question 56

One digit from the number 6,787,997 is written on each of seven cards. What is the probability of drawing a card that shows 6 or 9? ( Round to 4 decimals )

Question 57

If two cards are drawn without replacement from a deck, find the probability that the second card is a spade, given that the first card was a spade. ( Round to 4 decimals )

Question 58

How many three-digit numbers can be formed using the digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, if repetitions of digits are allowed? (Type answer as a whole number.)

Question 59

In how many ways can the letters in the word PAYMENT be arranged if the letters are taken 4 at a time? (Type answer as a whole number.)

Question 60

Find the percentile for the data value. (Type answer as a whole number.)

Data set: 3, 13, 10, 6, 3, 3, 13, 6, 3, 13, 2, 13, 15, 4, 9, 3, 12, 10, 6, 13;

Data value: 6

Question 61

Find the percentile for the data value. (Type answer as a whole number.)

Data set: 51, 31, 47, 69, 73, 71, 30;

Data value: 51

Question 621 pts

A clothing vendor estimates that 78 out of every 100 of its online customers do not live within 50 miles of one of its physical stores. Using this estimate, what is that probability that a a randomly selected online customer lives within 50 miles of a physical store? (Round answer to the nearest hundredths.)

Question 63

If 81% of scheduled flights actually take place and cancellations are independent events, what is the probability that 3 separate flights will take place? (Round answer to the nearest hundredths.)

Question 64

A basketball player hits three-point shots 43% of the time. If she takes 4 shots during a game, what is the probability that she misses the first shot and hits the last three shots? (Round answer to the nearest hundredths.)

Question 65

You are dealt two cards successively (without replacement) from a shuffled deck of 52 playing cards. Find the probability that both cards are black. ( Round to 4 decimals )

Question 66

You are dealt two cards successively (without replacement) from a shuffled deck of 52 playing cards. Find the probability that the first card is a king and the second card is a queen. ( Round to 4 decimals )

Question 67

Two marbles are drawn without replacement from a box with 3 white, 2 green, 2 red, and 1 blue marble. Find the probability that both marbles are white. ( Round to 4 decimals )

Question 68

If two cards are drawn without replacement from a deck, find the probability that the second card is a face card, given that the first card was a queen. ( Round to 4 decimals )

Question 69

If two cards are drawn without replacement from a deck, find the probability that the second card is an ace, given that the first card was an ace. ( Round to 4 decimals )

Question 70

In a data set with a range of 55.4 to 105.4 and 400 observations, there are 276 observations with values less than 86. Find the percentile for 86. (Round answer to the nearest hundredths.)

Question 71

The weights (in pounds) of 30 newborn babies are listed below. Find P16

5.5 5.7 5.8 5.9 6.1 6.1 6.4 6.4 6.5 6.6

6.7 6.7 6.7 6.9 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.2

7.4 7.5 7.7 7.7 7.8 8.0 8.1 8.1 8.3 8.7

Question 72

The weights (in pounds) of 30 newborn babies are listed below. Find Q1

5.5 5.7 5.8 5.9 6.1 6.1 6.4 6.4 6.5 6.6

6.7 6.7 6.7 6.9 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.2

7.4 7.5 7.7 7.7 7.8 8.0 8.1 8.1 8.3 8.7

Question 73

An unprepared student makes random guesses for the ten true-false questions on a quiz. Find the probability that there is at least one correct answer. (Round answer to the nearest thousandths)

Question 74

One measure of air travel safety is this: There are 117 fatalities per billion passenger flights. Is it Likely or Unlikely for an air passenger to be fatality? (Check your spelling!)

Question 75

In a survey, 169 respondents say that they never use a credit card, 12527 say that they use it sometimes, and 2834 say that they use it frequently. Find the probability that a randomly selected person uses a credit card frequently (Round to 4 decimals) then take that result and decide whether it is Likely or Unlikely (ONLY TYPE IN THE WORD!) for someone to use a credit card frequently. (Check your spelling!)

Question 89

A classic counting problem is to determine the number of different ways that the letters of “Mississippi” can be arranged. Find that number.

Question 90

How many different ways can the letters in the word “statistics” be arranged? Find that number.

Question 91

The Teknomill Corporation must appoint a president, chief executive officer (CEO), chief operating officer (COO), and chief financial officer (CFO). It must also appoint a Planning Committee with four different members. There are 12 qualified candidates, and officers can also serve on the committee.

How many different ways can the officers be appointed?

Question 92

How many different ways can the committee be appointed?

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IT and ITM figure into the performance and outcomes of this organization

Post author By admin
Post date October 3, 2021
No Comments on IT and ITM figure into the performance and outcomes of this organization

Case Assignment

This first case paper will set the stage for the balance of your Capstone project. Choose an appropriate project organization of suitable size, and with which you are familiar enough to conduct suitable critical analysis. Please choose an IT-related organization. This can be your current organization/unit, or a reasonable portion thereof. The focus can also be a recent organizational assignment within a given organization. If your work or assignment situation is not primarily IT-related, you may still use it. You will simply need to detail how IT and ITM figure into the performance and outcomes of this organization. If you are not currently employed outside the home or in an IT setting, find an organization, or IT personnel in your organization, who would be willing to provide you such IT information as is required as you proceed through the various segments of the Capstone Case. In this case, you must involve IT issues in some meaningful way. For this first Case segment, at minimum, for your chosen organization, provide as much of the following descriptive and analysis information as possible:

Describe and discuss the organization: what it does; its services, products, outputs, or mission; how it fits in any overall larger system; how it is staffed, structured, and organized, etc.
What sort of ‘environmental’ challenges is this organization facing: social, economic, and technological? How are they responding? What are some of the key opportunities, problems, and challenges your organization is facing? What are the IT Governance issues? What are the ethical issues?
You will wish to detail your personal role and contributions to this organization as well as the personal challenges and opportunities you face.

Assignment Expectations

In all of this, you will need to reflect on your description and analysis (and perhaps adjust it accordingly) to ensure that you are able to integrate insight and learning from previous classes (and other sources as fits the circumstances). This means at least five contiguous academically sound citations and later full references. Use enough concurrent discussion so that the purpose of each citation is apparent to the reader. Note that this paper is incomplete without five academically sound references (relevant magazine articles from such sources as CIO are OK. Also, you may use Wikipedia and military/corporate references, but they do not count as one of the required five).

You will be assessed on the appropriateness and completeness of the detail you provide regarding your selected organization, your use of citations and references as noted above, and your intellectual insight into topically important issues. You will also be assessed on how well you adhere to the specific Capstone Case Guidelines provided to you

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Premium papers. We provide the highest quality papers in the writing industry. Our company only employs specialized professional writers who take pride in satisfying the needs of our huge client base by offering them premium writing services IT and ITM figure into the performance and outcomes of this organization

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Tags figure, organization, outcomes, performance

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Programmatic student learning outcomes (PSLO)

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Post date March 16, 2021
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Assignment Content

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Write a400-word paper in which you:

Explain how programmatic student learning outcomes (PSLO) help prepare students for career success.

Format your assignment according to APA guidelines. Please note that you are expected to cite and list a few scholarly references.

Write a 175- to 265-word response to the following questions:

Clinical Regulatory Affairs/Specialist, Clinical project manager and Clinical Director.

Why are you interested in them? How will you pursue your career goal in this area?

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Health Administration Program

Name:

Grade Course:

Tutor’s Name:

Date of Submission:

Explain how programmatic student learning outcomes (PSLO) help prepare students for career success

Programmatic student learning outcomes (PSLO’s) is described as outline that helps the students to know what they know and how to make conclusion on the applications that are admissible within specific professions. The students are provided with the manual that contain preset text that is specific to that occupation(Zlatkin-Troitschankaia, et al., 2016). The manual prepares the students to perform specific tasks within the occupation. It also highlights the issues that the student is likely to encounter within the profession and it explains how to address these issues considering the principles of the profession. In essence, they are presumptive situation or problems in a specific profession where students need to learn how to handle constructively to be successful in that profession.

For example, in the health care, PSLO’s serves as essential tool that exposes and prepare students to deal with the challenges they will encounter as medical professionals. It is important to note that PSLO’s does not only prepare students to be successful, but also to observe social skills, ethics and make correct decisions. This means that PSLO’s help the students to sharpen their skills and prepare them to handle challenges that they may encounter within the profession. This way, the students becomes more successful once they start carrying out their duties since they have already been prepared. It is imperative to understand that PSLO’s are designed to clearly identify the subject matter within the course. The key objectives are included in the program since they form fundamental part of the profession. It includes specific project that teaches the students to practically apply the concepts, knowledge and skills they have acquired in the classroom. It also makes the transition process from the classroom to job market more adaptable to the students since the students are taken through theoretical and practical aspect…………………………………………………………………………………………………

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Why is it important for you to know and achieve the BSHA Student Learning Outcomes?

Post author By admin
Post date March 16, 2021
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Write a 175- to 265-word response to the following questions: Why is it important for you to know and achieve the BSHA Student Learning Outcomes? How will you work toward achieving them during your program? Explain your answer.

BSHA Student Learning Outcomes:

1. Analyze a health care organization from a market-based perspective.

2. Analyze financial and economic issues in the health care industry.

3. Examine the impact of legal and regulatory requirements on the delivery of health care.

4. Examine the application of risk and quality management concepts in the health care industry.

5. Analyze the utilization and application of technology within a health care organization.

6. Apply management and adaptable leadership skills in the health care industry

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Health Administration program

Why is it important for you to know and achieve the BSHA Student Learning Outcomes?

There is no doubt that job market today continues to be very competitive and mostly only the best graduates are observed. To beat the competitiveness, most graduates have increased their level of education by going for degrees and advance diploma. Analysis of job market have showed that most jobs requires a college degree for the applicants to be considered. This underpin the importance of attending college, performing excellently and acquiring a college degree. It is also imperative to attain college education since it prepares students to tackle challenging management issues as well as expose them to more opportunities in the job market. In addition, college degree equips students with values, knowledge and skills, thus leading to higher salaries and getting a more employment. For this case, the focus is student pursuing Bachelor of Science in Health Administration (BSHA). It is important to note that various degree programs are offered in different college and for the student to successfully achieve the minimum requirement to graduate with a specific degree program, they must achieve Student Learned Outcomes. It is imperative to clearly understand Student Learned Outcomes since it clearly outlines what the students are expected to achieve to perform specific tasks in their area of specialty. For instance, after attaining the BSHA, a student is expected to able to successfully manage medical offices, nursing…………………………………………………………………………………………………

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Tags achieve, important, learning, outcomes, student

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Persuasion outcomes when marketing a new product

Post author By admin
Post date February 26, 2021
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It is important to consider the different types of persuasion outcomes when marketing a new product. Imagine you are a marketer in charge of designing an advertising campaign for one of the following products: a new car, a new potato chip flavor, or a new pair of shoes. Write a 600 to 750 word paper that briefly describes the advertising campaign that you would create for the product you selected. You may use first person pronouns in this paper to explain the personal choices you would make for developing all aspects of the campaign, including the message of your campaign and the medium you will use to promote that message. In your paper, identify appropriate affective, behavioral, and cognitive outcomes and explain how your campaign could be designed to target each measurable outcome.

The Persuasion Outcomes paper

Must be 600- to 750-words in length (do not include title and references pages in word count) and formatted according to APA style as outlined in the Ashford Writing Center (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site..

Must include a separate title page (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site. with the following: Persuasion Outcomes

Must use at least one scholarly source in addition to the course text.

The Scholarly, Peer Reviewed, and Other Credible Sources (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site. table offers additional guidance on appropriate source types. If you have questions about whether a specific source is appropriate for this assignment, please contact your instructor. Your instructor has the final say about the appropriateness of a specific source for a particular assignment.

Must document all sources in text (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site. in APA style as outlined in the Ashford Writing Center.

Must include a separate references page (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site. that is formatted according to APA style as outlined in the Ashford Writing Center.

……………………………………………………………………………………………………

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The Persuasion Outcomes

(Student’s Name)

(Course Name and Number)

(Name of Instructor)

(Date)

The Persuasion Outcomes

The development of an understanding of the effects of an advertising campaign is central to the persuasion process (McDonough & Egolf, 2015). According to the author, an advertising campaign can lead to positive or negative effects. The effects, whether positive or negative can be measured using variables such as the extent of audience interest, degree to which the audience recognize the sponsor and their feelings towards the product. The following is a description of an advertisement campaign for a car.

The Advertising Campaign

Cars have become a symbol of status, which is associated with the rich and working class. However, there are many models of cars, from different manufacturers, which cater for the different needs of its users. Development of an appropriate marketing campaign must include effective persuasive techniques, which would lead to positive outcomes and increased sales. In this advertisement campaign, the car that is to be advertised is an all purpose car, which suits people who love going out with their families visiting parks and up country areas with rough terrain.

The advertisement will be carried out in a local television using the car and a favorite local model. The advertisement will feature the model driving the car in a rough terrain and a park, while showing the level of satisfaction gained while driving the car. In particular, the advertisement will feature the local model driving across a surface that the audience would feel cannot be driven across using the local small cars. At the end of the driving experience, the model will tell the audience his/her experience, while declaring the central message of the advertisement campaign. According to (McDonough & Egolf, 2015) the repetiti…………Persuasion Outcomes…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

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Tags marketing, outcomes, persuasion, product

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Program Outcomes, MSN Essentials, and NONPF Competencies

Post author By admin
Post date December 11, 2020
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Requirements

The Concept Map must visually connect all of the specified objectives  (Program Outcomes, MSN Essentials, and NONPF Competencies) to course work (such as specific discussion board topics, written assignments, exams, lessons, and reading content).
All items should be labeled, for instance, label the objectives and label the course work you select with name of the assignment/reading/discussion board topic and which week it was introduced.
Use Microsoft Word or a PowerPoint to create a Concept Map. You can use the features found on the “Insert” tab of a Word doc (in the horizontal ribbon on the top of a Word doc page). For instance, if you click on “insert” you will see shapes and SmartArt. You can use a PowerPoint slide with shapes and lines to create a concept/mind map. This is not a PowerPoint presentation, but a PowerPoint slide can be used to “draw” the Map.

Outcomes/Competencies to be connected with course learning:

MSN Program Outcome #2:

Create a caring environment for achieving quality health outcomes (Care-Focused).

MSN Essential VIII:

Clinical Prevention and Population Health for Improving Health

National Organization of Nurse Practitioner Competencies #4: Practice Inquiry Competencies

Recognizes that the master’s-prepared nurse applies and integrates broad, organizational, client-centered, and culturally appropriate concepts in the planning, delivery, management, and evaluation of evidence-based clinical prevention and population care and services to individuals, families, and aggregates/identified populations.

Your Concept Map will visually depict how you see the assignments of the course meeting the outcomes above.

Preparing the Assignment

ViewHow to Create a Concept Map (Links to an external site.)

textbook: Curley, A.L. & Vitale, P.A. (2016). Population-Based Nursing: Concepts and Competencies for Advanced Practice (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Springer Publishing.

Description

MSN Program Outcome #2

The Map visually connects the Category to a minimum of two (2) assignments.
Each assignment is clearly labeled with week and content topic.

MSN Essential VIII

The Map visually connects the Category to a minimum of two (2) assignments.
Each assignment is clearly labeled with week and content topic.

NONPF Competencies #4

The Map visually connects the Category to a minimum of two (2) assignments.
Each assignment is clearly labeled with week and content topic.
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Tags competencies, essentials, nonpf, outcomes, program

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Potential for improving outcomes for CORVID19 and future similar pandemics

Post author By admin
Post date November 18, 2020
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CORVID-19 has caused global pandemic that has caused widespread illness and death and has wreaked havoc on the worlds economy. If we compare it to the pandemic of 1918 we find many of the issues that arose then are arising today. For example during that epidemic some experts recommended face coverings, yet many people refused to use them. One advantage we have is current and potential technology. The slide presentation described promising technology that may prove to be effective tools against the next pandemic. For this discussion forum, respond to the following question: Which two technologies, described in the special topics lecture, do you think have the most potential for improving outcomes for CORVID19 and future similar pandemics? Explain why you selected each one.

Tags corvid19, future, improving, outcomes, pandemics, potential, similar

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Improving patient care and outcomes is paramount to the practice of nursing

Post author By admin
Post date June 23, 2020
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Improving patient care and outcomes is paramount to the practice of nursing. As we conclude our learning journey through our world of research and evidence-based practice, it is important to reflect upon your time spent in the course:

Think about nursing practice and describe one barrier that you feel prohibits nurses from engaging in EBP; share one strategy you could use to facilitate the use of evidence to help improve nursing care for patients.
Reflect back over your time in the course and describe how your thinking has changed about nursing research and evidence-based practice; describe one new learning during this course that you believe was the most helpful.
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Tags improving, nursing, outcomes, paramount, patient, practice